DATES: All dates since 1700 are given in the Gregorian calendar ("new style") as opposed to Julian ("old style") dates or other calendar systems, unless otherwise noted. The introduction of the Gregorian calendar, proclaimed by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, was not universally accepted and took centuries for nations to pass legislative acts for switching to the New Style. Transfers occurred after 1582 in: Austria (1584), Transylvania (1590), Duchy of Prussia (1612),  Denmark-Norway and Brandenburg  (1700), Switzerland (1701), Tuscany (1750), Great Britain and colonies (1752), Sweden (1753),  Japan (1873), China (1912 confirmed 1929), Albania (1913), Bulgaria (1916), Russia (1918), Yugoslavia (1919), Greece (1923), Romania (1924), and Turkey (1927) (click here for more on this topic).

(?)  The question mark is used where an exact year of the beginning or end of a term is approximately known, The question mark is also used to indicate dates at which the person is known to have been in office, e.g., "1924? - 1925?" means the term began in 1924 or earlier and ended in 1925 or later or if the identity of the person is in question "Ralph Dryer?".

(f)  Indicates a female ruler when a title is non-gender specific. Therefore, (f) would follow a female President  "Tarja Halonen (f)", of Finland or former after British Prime minister "Margaret Thatcher (f)".  This abbreviation does not follow the names of Queen Elizabeth II, Empress Catherine II, Grand Duchess Charlotte, or Abbess Maria von Retchburg for example, because these titles explicitly convey the holders gender.

c. = Circa,  i.e. the approximate year. This is used when historical records are uncertain or in conflict.

bf. = Before, af. = After.  These are used where slightly more than an approximate date is indicated.

b. = year Born, d. = year Died; 

s.a. = See Above, s. b. = See Below.  Please note that some given birth years may be questionable, as different sources often give contradictory information. In cases where birth or death year are unclear, the date is followed by a question mark (i.e., "1923?"), however,  this does not mean that the year is guaranteed to be 100% correct when there is no question mark. When only a birth year is given, it should not be taken for granted that the person is indeed still alive, i.e. (b. 1898) with no death date.

est.  = Estimate(d).

a.k.a = Also Known As

(....)  = When date(s) or name(s) are unknown the ellipsis is used.

N/A  = data Not Available or unknown.

Abbreviations for the Months: Jan = January; Feb = February; Mar = March; Apr = April; May;
Jun = June; Jul = July; Aug = August; Sep = September; Oct = October; Nov = November; 
Dec = December

   European Noble Titles and Styles

   Altgrave (German. Altgraf): An exclusively German usage, granted to nobles of the status of Counts with

       holdings in  mountainous regions, particularly along passes, where they were vested with the right to garrison

      such points, and levy  tolls for access and passage. See also Burgrave, Landgrave, Margrave, Rhinegrave,

      Wildgrave. 

 

   Archduke: (French Archiduc; Ger. Erzherzog; Irish Ard Diuc; Italian Arciduca; Spanish Arzoduque;

     Polish Arcyksiaze): The title of sovereignty used exclusively by legitimate members of the Austrian Habsburgs 

      and Lorraine-Habsburgs, from 1359; a duke of  higher rank than Grand Dukes or simple Dukes. 

 

   Ardrigh, Ardri, Ardry (Ir.): High King, the theoretical (and sometimes actual) ruler of the entire Irish

     nation. 

 

   Ban (Slavonic): A term usually found in Hungary and the Balkans, in the context of describing district or 

      provincial governors; it often had a hereditary implication, and could be approximately equivalent to Duke or 

      Prince.

 

   Baron (Fr., Sp., and Polish  Baron; Ger. Freiherr; Ir. Barun; It. Barone; Portuguese Barão; Swedish Friherre): 

      The lowest grade of nobility; the word derives from a Gothic term meaning "Man"  i.e. my representative, my servant, 

      one who exerts himself on my behalf.  Originally, Barons were the holders of  Royal lands, castellans and companions

      of the King who assisted in maintaining order in the provinces. The German term translates roughly as "free warrior". 

 

   Burgrave (Ger. Burggraf, Polish Burgrabia): A title encountered exclusively in Germany, where it refers to a person

      with the status of Count whose domain was primarily an urban territory. Some sources equate it as an equivalent title 

      to the Anglo-French Viscount. 

 

   Count (in England Earl/Countess; Fr. Comte; Ger. Graf; Ir. Iarla, Coimhid, Cunta; It. Conte; Port. Conde; 

      Sp. Conde; Polish Hrabia; Lithuanian Grafas; Danish/Swed. Greve): The Anglo-Saxon term translates literally as 

      "Elder", "Senior", and refers to a chief  counselor of  the realm. The term came to be used to refer to close friends

      and companions of  Royalty,  and  was eventually institutionalized as such, somewhat superseding, but not replacing,

      Barons. The Scandinavian Jarl,  which came to be transliterated in English as "Earl" has exactly the same sense: a 

      companion or supporter of royalty. Earl recalls the Scandinavian term, a Countess is a female Earl, and

     and Graf entered the language as Reeve, a manorial steward or overseer; "Reeve" has become archaic with the

     disappearance of manorial feudalism, but it may be noted that Kings began to appoint Bailiffsto enforce Royal
     prerogatives on a local level, and these "shire-reeves" (sheriffs) still exist today. 
 

   Count Palatine (in England Palatine Earl; Ger. Pfalzgraf; Ital. Conte Palatino; Polish Hrabia Palatyn): 

      In a general sense, Palatine nobles are those invested not only with the honors and privileges usual to their rank, but 

      also with certain sovereign or  semi-sovereign  rights as well, especially those involving the administration of justice. This

      is the case both in the north of England and within Germany,  where this form is most usually encountered. In the specific

     sense of the German usage, the Counts Palatine of the Rhine became the senior Counts of the Empire.

 

   Duke (Fr. Duc; Ger. Herzog; Ir. Diuc; It. Doge, Duce; Lat. Dux; Port. Duque; Serbian Herceg; Sp. Duque; 

      Pol. Diuk): The highest grade of  nobility, and sometimes a sovereign title. Most of the above mentioned 

      terms derive from the Latin Dux, meaning a leader or commander, especially in a military sense, i.e.. a general or 

      warlord. 

 

   Earl: see explanation of the title "Count".

 

   Elector (Ger. Kurfürst): In the restricted sense of the German usage, "Elector" refers to the any of the great 

      nobles of the Mediaeval and Renaissance Kingdom of Germany who held the right to elect successive Holy 

      Roman Emperors; the term became in effect a kind of senior nobility in and of itself.  In fact, one electorate

     (Hesse-Cassel) insisted on retaining the title even after the Holy Roman Empire was abolished. 

 

   Emperor (Fr. Empereur; Ger. Kaiser; It. Imperatore; Lat. Augustus, Caesar, Imperator; Russian Tsar; 

      Sp. Emperador; Polish Cesarz): Technically, a ruler of sovereigns, a king of kings. Most of the above terms derive

      from the Latin Imperator, meaning "One who requires, demands, or obligates".  Imperator Octavian Caesar in 27 BCE. 

      His family name provides the source for the remaining terms.'

 

   Genannt (abbreviated as "gen."): Simply means in German "called."  In Germany this occurred very often

      when someone changed his name for one reason or the other - i.e. a certain military named Jastrzembski in

      1911 was allowed to change his name into Falkenhayn and thus was called General Falkenhayn or to be 

      more correct General von Jastrzembski genannt (gen.) Falkenhayn.

 

   Gentry (Fr. Gens de Qualite; Ger. Landadel; Ir. Daoine Uaisle; Lat. Gentis; Sp. Gentil; Polish Szlachcic): 

     A Gentleman is not necessarily mild-mannered, he is gentle because he is a member of a Gens, a distinguished lineage 

     or family.
 

   Grand Duke (Fr. Grand Duc; Ger. Grossherzog): A title created in early modern times to distinguish certain

      sovereign Dukes from simple Dukes of various nobility's. Today a single Grand Duchy remains: Luxembourg. 

 

   Hetman (Ger. Hauptmann; Pol./Ukrainian Hetman): In a general sense, a Hetman is a clan or tribal leader 

      and/or military commander. The title is most usually a reference to Cossack leaders of the Ukraine: in fact, it 

      has been used to identify Ukrainian Sovereigns on those occasions when dissident Cossacks attempted the 

      establishment of a separate State. Its  military sense has also been used extensively in Moldavia during the

      17th and 18th centuries.  In Poland Hetman Wielki Koronny = Great Hetman of the Crown and  Field Hetman of 

      the Crown = Hetman Polny Koronny; in Lithuania Hetman Wielki Wielkiego Ksiêstwa Litewskiego.

 

   King (Albanian: Mbret; Danish Konge; Dutch Koning; Fr. Roi; Ger. Koenig; Greek Basileus; Hungarian

      Kiraly; It. Re; Ir. Ri(gh); Latin Rex; Pol. Krol; Port. Rei; Norwegian Konge; Romanian Regele; Serb. Kralj;

      Polish Krol; Sp. Rey; Swed. Konung):  All of these terms mean essentially the same thing; national ruler or sovereign

      leader of a particular people. 

 

   Kniaz (Rus. Knyaz; Serb. Knez): An archaic title meaning "Prince", but often mistranslated as "Duke". 

      The Kniazy were rulers of the various Russian states existing during the Middle Ages. They had differing

      levels of authority;  technically a Kniaz was a sub-Prince, the highest level were called Veliky Knyaz, Great 

      Prince (also translated poorly, as Grand Duke). 

 

   Knight ( Ir. Curadh, Ridire; Fr. Chevalier; Ger. Ritter; Lat. Equites; Port. Cavaleiro; Sp. Caballero; 

      Polish Rycerz):  A knight is, technically, simply someone who owes military service to a feudal lord, and is wealthy 

      enough to own a horse. Most of the above terms are variations on "Horseman" or "Rider"; the Anglo-Saxon term 

      has the sense of  "Youth", "Aide-de-Camp", or "Military Retainer" (almost exactly the same status as later came to be 

      described by the term "Squire"). 

 

   Landgrave (Ger. Landgraf): A title found in Germany, referring to a Count who has jurisdiction over

       primarily rural regions. Related titles: Altgrave, Burgrave, Margrave, Rhinegrave, Wildgrave. 

 

   Leader (Ger. Führer; Ital. Duce; Lat.Dictator; Polish Naczelnik; Rom. Conducator; Serb. Vozd; 

      Sp. Caudillo): Not a noble title pre se, these terms nevertheless are important references to political rulers. They each 

     have the sense of Overall Commander, Ruler (especially: Military Ruler), "Boss". 

   Leath-Ri (Ir.): Literally "Half-King", the particular style for a member of a joint rulership. 
 

   Lord (Fr. Seigneur; Ger. Herr; Ir. Tiarna, Tighearna; It. Signore; Polish Senior/Pan; Port. Senhor; Rom. Dom;

      Sp. Señor): This is an imprecise term which can mean various things depending on context. Usually it means "One of 

      noble birth, a holder of a title of nobility".  In Great Britain though, it can also have the sense of rural gentry, one of gentle 

      birth who,  without  possessing a patent of nobility, nevertheless owns a manorial estate.  Most of the above terms derive

      from the Latin Senior, an elder or master. The German term means "Warrior". 

 

   Margrave (Eng. Marquess/Marchioness; Fr. Marquis; Ger. Markgraf; Ir. Marcas; It. Marchese; Port. Marquês; 

      Polish Margrabia/ Markiz; Sp. Marqués) Originally this term referred to counts who held frontier districts. Since 

      such regions tended to be larger than average, and heavily militarized, March lords slowly accumulated greater status than

      others, and now are the second grade of nobility, ranking below Dukes but above Counts. Note see also; Altgrave, 

      Burgrave, Landgrave, Rhinegrave, Wildgrave.

 

   Page (Fr. Page; Ger. Page; Ital. Paggio; Lat. Paginus; Polish Paz; Sp. Paje): All these terms derive from the Latin, 

     which means "A boy, a child servant". Pages were institutionalized as the first step in becoming a Knight; a child of roughly

      7 to 14 who was set to learning the fundamentals of life in a castle. 
 

   Prince (Fr. Prince; Ger. Fürst, Prinz; Ir. Flaith, Mal, Prionsa; Hung. Fejedelem; Lat.Princeps; Port. Príncipe;

      Polish Ksiaze; Sp. Príncipe; Lithuanian Kunigaikstis, Rus. Knyaz; Serb. Knez; Welsh Brenin) This term has 

      any of a number of definitions depending on context. Usually, "Prince" refers to a member of a Royal Family who is not

      the sovereign. Often, especially when used as "Crown Prince", it refers to the immediate heir to the throne.  It is also a 

      sovereign title, and as such there are several Principalities still  in existence today. In German nobility, a Prince was a

      grade of nobility located below Dukes but above Margraves. The term derives from the Latin, which means simply "First,

      Chief, the Boss" The Roman Empire was, in fact, described by its citizens as "the Principate". 

 

   Rhinegrave (Ger. Rheingraf): An exclusively German usage, denoting nobles of Count status with holdings

      on the Rhine River, and vested with the privilege of levying tolls for passage along the river. See as also:

      Altgrave, Burgrave, Landgrave, Margrave, Wildgrave.

 

   Ruire (Irish): Petty King; Lord of a minor or dependent regality. 

 

   Squire  (Ger. Gutsherr, Junker; Ir. Scuibheir; Ital. Scudiero; Polish Giermek; Port. Morgado; Sp. Escudero ):

      Usually this refers to the servant of a knight, a young person of roughly 14 to 21 who is learning the business of being a 

     knight. It, and similar terms in other languages have been applied to landed gentry, owners of large estates who do not 
     hold patents of nobility. The term derives ultimately to a phrase (Esquyer, Escutier) in Anglo-Norman meaning 
    "Shieldbearer", and a variant of that has also remained in the language: Esquire. 
 

   Tanaiste, Tanist (Ir.): Successor-designate to a chieftaincy or royalty. Utilized today as the Irish term for

      Deputy Prime Minister. 

 

   Taoiseach (Ir.): Clan elder, chieftain. Utilized today as the Irish term for Prime Minister. 

 

   Viscount (Fr. Vicomte; Ger. Vicomte; Ir. Biocun; It. Visconte; Lat. Vice Comes; Port. Visconde;

      Polish Wicehrabia; Sp. Vizconde):  A title meaning,  essentially, "Vice Count", an assistant or deputy Count. It is

      now the fourth grade of nobility, situated between Counts/Earls on the one hand, and Barons on the other. 

 

   Voivode (Rus. Voyevoda; Serb. Vojvod; Polish Wojewoda): An old Slavonic title, usually encountered in the Balkans.

      Its original sense was a military one, meaning field commander in an army. By extension, it became the title of 

      district or provincial governors, and evolved in some areas a quasi-hereditary status close to that of Prince or

     Duke. The Bulgarian Voin, "Warrior". In a slightly altered context, it has also come to be applied as a term 

     describing the clan leader of a Gypsy ("Rroma") band or extended family. In Poland used as "Governor"
 

   Wildgrave (Ger. Wildgraf): A German usage, referring to a noble of the status of Count, who held 

      jurisdiction over wilderness, waste ground, forests, and uninhabited districts. They had certain legal privileges

      which made them, in effect, foresters and gamekeepers. 

 

   Zupan (Slavonic): Most usually found in the Balkans, the original meaning of this term was the "Leader of 

      a Zupa", a clan or grouping of extended families. These associations of families (remnants of which can still be

      recognized today in various Slavic nations) were among the earliest political organizations found among 

      Slavonic peoples. As the term evolved, it became a usage for certain types of provincial governors and minor

      nobles. In Poland a Zupan was the chief of Royal Salt Mines.

  Atabeg (Turkic): Originating within the Seljuq hegemony of western Asia in the 12th century, it generally refers

     to a governor of provincial stature. The term was utilized sporadically after the end of Seljuq rule. 

 

  Begam (Begum)(India, Pakistan): Lady of rank (Muslim). 

 

  Bey (Turkish): A title within the Ottoman Empire. Depending on context, it could mean a military commander

     of roughly regimental level, or it could mean the Governor of a district or small province. Sometimes

     title was hereditary.

 

  Beylerbey (Turkish): A military commander of very senior rank, or the governor of a major province or region. 

 

  Bwana (Swahili):  Lord, a noble or important personage. 

 

  Caliph (Arabic: Khalifa, "successor"): The theoretical leader of all Islam; at times this has been in effect an 

     Emperor. 

 

  Daimyao (Japanese): Provincial ruler, governor of a region, and/or leader of a noble clan. 

 

  Diwan (India, Pakistan): Royal court; chief revenue officer of the province; chief minister. 

 

  Efendi (Turkish): A noble or important person; similar in many respects to Bwana or Sahib.

 

  Emir/Amir (Arabic): Roughly, the ruler of a small State; approximately equivalent to the European Prince or

     Duke. 

  Huang Ti/Huang Di (Chinese): The Emperor of China. Vietnamese form of Huang Di is Hoang De.

 

  Kakhan (Mongol, and Central Asian): Also Qaghan, Kakan, Kagan, etc. A supreme Khan, an emperor. 

 

  Khan (Mongol, and Central Asian): Originally a clan leader among the Mongols, it has become a term used

     for "King, ruler of a state" in many parts of the Middle East. Kakhan was the leader of many tribes or nations.

 

  Maharajadhiraj (India): An Emperor; king of Kings. 

 

  Maharajah (India): Hindu ruler of an Indian state (also Maharana', Maharao; Maharawal) (Compare Maha to 

     Greek Mega). 

 

  Maharani (India):  Hindu woman ruler; or wife of a Maharajah. 

 

  Malik (Arabic): A King, the ruler of a State. 

 

  Mir (Persian, Pashtun, etc.): A local ruler or clan elder, used especially for the chiefs of Sind. 

 

  Moi (Hawaiian): A King, the Ruler of an island. 

 

  Nabob, Nawab (India): Governor, provincial leader. 

 

  Negusa Negest (Amharic): Literally, "King of Kings"; the Emperor of Ethiopia.

 

  Padishah (Persian, and Turkic): A supreme Shah - one of the titles held by the Ottoman Sultan. 

 

  Pasha (Turkish): A title within the Ottoman Empire. Depending on context, it could mean a General officer in

     the military, of roughly divisional or corps level, or it could mean the Governor of a province.

 

  Rajah (India): A King, the ruler of a State. given to Hindus of rank, or by heredity when descended from a prince

     (Comparable with Celtic Rig, Latin Rex) .

  Rani (India): Queen or princess (Hindu). 

  Rao (India): Title of distinction conferred by the ruler on one of his nobles (Rajput). 

  Ras (Amharic): A military title, equivalent to Field Marshal; often translated as Duke in regards to Ethiopian

     honors. 

 

  Rawal (India):  Title of distinction, as Rao. 

 

  Sahib (India): Lord, master, important or noble personage. 

 

  Shah (Persian): A King, the ruler of a State. It is often taken to mean "Emperor", but technically that is 

     "Shahanshah", King of Kings. 

 

  Sheik (Arabic): A person of noble lineage, and/or a clan or tribal leader. 

 

  Sirdar (Persian, Afghani, Pakistani, India): A title of nobility, roughly equivalent to that of a European Count.

 

  Sidar Bahadur (Persian, Afghan, Pakistani, India): Literally "Exalted" or "Victorious" Sirdar; a title of

     nobility very roughly equivalent to the European Margrave. 

 

  Sultan (Arabic): A leader of a State or many States; a King or Emperor. 

 

  Taifa (Spanish): The ruler of a state, especially one of the post-Abbassid successor states in Moslem Spain. The term

    is based on the (Andalusian dialect) Arabic Muluk at-Tawa'if meaning roughly Junta Leader, or King of a Faction. 

 

  Tenno (Japanese): The ultimate leader of the Japanese people, commonly translated as "Emperor". 

 

  Thakur (India): Chief  a Rajput landlord (Rajputana).

 

  Tui (Tonga): King, ruler of the nation. 

 

  Vizier, Wazir (Arabic, Turkish): A title encountered in many places around the Muslim world; it is usually, though not

     always, non-hereditary. Usually it refers to a high-ranking Officer of State; typically the equivalent of a 

     European Prime Minister or chief financial or treasury officer. 

 

  Wali (Turkey, India): Ruler; also a title within the Ottoman Empire. Usually it refers to province or district governor. 

     Sometimes the post was hereditary.

 

  Wazir (India, Arabia, Turkey, Africa): Chief minister at a Muslim court. 

 

  Wang (Chinese, Korean, etc.): A Chinese term for kings; the Ruler of the State. Often adopted by

     neighboring states within Chinese cultural influence, or specifically granted the term by Chinese diplomats or

     overlords. Vietnamese equivalent is Vuong.

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