Antarctica
 

1978: Proposed Flag (Whitney Smith)

1996: Proposed Flag (Graham Bartram)

2018: Proposed Flag (Evan Townsend)

Antarctic Treaty Secretariat Flag Adopted 20 Sep 2002

Map of Antarctica Map of Antarctic Research Stations & Territorial Claims Antarctic Treaty (23 Jun 1961) Major Stations: Amundsen-Scott (US), Belgrano (Arg.), Bernardo O'Higgins (Chile), Dumont d'Urville (Fr.), Halley (UK), Maitri (India), Mawson (Aus.), McMurdo (US), Neumayer III (Ger), Palmer (US), Scott (NZ), Shōwa (Jap.), SANAE IV  (South Africa), Troll (Norway), Vostok (Rus.), Zhongshan (China) ---------------------------- Antarctic Treaty Secretariat Headquarters (from 2004): Buenos Aires (Argentina) Currency: No Common Currency ------------------------- Holidays: Jun. 20 or 21 Midwinter Day (southern winter solstice day) (de facto; unofficial) -------------------------- 1 Dec. (1959) Antarctica Day (unofficial from 2010) Population: Uninhabited Approx. Seasonal Research Staff: Summer (Dec.-Feb.): 4,713 (2024) Winter (Jun.-Aug.): 1,056 (2024) Total Armed Forces: Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature. GDP: Scientific undertakings rather than commercial pursuits are the predominate human activity in Antarctica. Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for Antarctica's limited economic activity. Peak Summer (December-February) maximum capacity in scientific stations - 4,713 total; Argentina 425, Australia 238, Belarus 15, Belgium 55, Brazil 64, Bulgaria 25, Chile 375, China 164, Czechia 32, Ecuador 35, Finland 16, France 136, France and Italy jointly 70, Germany 60, India 72, Italy 150, Japan 130, South Korea 158, New Zealand 85, Norway 60, Peru 30, Poland 41, Russia 211, South Africa 80, Spain 79, Sweden 16, Ukraine 15, United Kingdom 315, United States 1,495, and Uruguay 66 (2024) Winter (June-August) maximum capacity in scientific stations - 1,056 total; Argentina 221, Australia 52, Brazil 15, Chile 114, China 32, France 24, France and Italy jointly 13, Germany 9, India 48, Japan 40, The Netherlands 10, South Korea 25, New Zealand 11, Norway 7, Poland 16, Russia 125, South Africa 15, Ukraine 12, U.K. 44, U.S. 215, and Uruguay 8 (2024) Number of Year-round research stations operated within the Antarctic Treaty area (south of 60 degrees south latitude) by National Antarctic Programs -  approximately 47 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 4, China 2, France 1, France and Italy jointly 1, Germany 2, India 2, Japan 1, South Korea 2, New Zealand 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 5, South Africa 1, Ukraine 1, U.K. 8, U.S. 3, and Uruguay 1 (2024) Summer-only Stations, refuges, depots, and laboratories - Argentina 7, Australia 1, Belarus 1, Belgium 1, Brazil 1, Bulgaria 1, Chile 8, China 2, Czechia 1, Ecuador 1, Finland 1, France and Italy 1, Germany 1, India 1, Italy 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, The Netherlands 1, New Zealand 1, Norway 1, Pakistan 1, Peru 1, Poland 1, Romania 1, Russia 1, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Sweden 2, Turkey 1, Ukraine 1, U.K. 1, U.S. 2, and Uruguay 1 (2023); in addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research. Antarctica Index Chronology 24 Jan 1539 - 29 May 1555  King of Spain, Charles V, created the Governorate of                              Terra Australis (Gobernación de la Terra                              Australis), which encompassed lands south of the                              Strait of Magellan and theoretically Antarctica,                              the existence of which was only hypothesized at the                              time. Spain claimed all the territories to the                              south of the Strait of Magellan until the South                              Pole, with eastern and western borders to these                              claims specified in the Treaties of Tordesillas and                              Zaragoza respectively. Dec 1773 - Jan 1775        British Capt. James Cook (b. 1728 - d. 1779)                              circumnavigates the continent without sighting                              land. 16 Feb 1819                First sighting of the Antarctic Peninsula and South                              Shetland Islands by British Capt. William Smith                              (b. c.1790 - d. 1847).  27 Jan 1820                Russian Capt. Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen                              (Faddey Faddeyevich Bellinsgauzen)(b. 1778 - d.                              1852) sights and lays claim to being the first                              person to set eyes on the Antarctic continent. 16 Nov 1820                Palmer Land discovered by American Capt. Nathaniel                              Brown Palmer (b. 1799 - d. 1877).  7 Feb 1821                U.S. Capt. John Davis (b. 1784 - d. 1861) makes                              first known landing on the continent at Hughes                              Bay on Antarctic Peninsula. 24 Feb 1831                First sighting of the Antarctic continent in the                              Indian Ocean sector (Enderby Land) by British                               Capt. John Biscoe (b. 1794 - d. 1843), in the                              Tula and Lively. 21 Feb 1832                Graham Land in Antarctica annexed for U.K. by                              Capt. John Biscoe (b. 1794 - d. 1843).    9 Feb 1839                First landing south of the Antarctic Circle by                                   British Capt. John Balleny (b. 1770 - d. 1857)                              in the Eliza Scott, discovered and landed on the                              Balleny Islands. 21 Jan 1840                Adelie Land (Terre Adélie) in Antarctica discovered                              and claimed for France by Capt. Jules Sébastien                              César Dumont d'Urville (b. 1790 - d. 1842).  9 Feb 1841                Ross Ice Shelf and Victoria Land claimed for                              for U.K. by British Capt. James Clark Ross                              (b. 1800 - d. 1862) in HMS Erebus. 26 Jan 1853                First landing on Greater Antarctica (Victoria Land)                              by American Capt. Mercator Cooper (b. 1803 - d.                              1872) in the Levant.  24 Jan 1895                Carsten Borchgrevink (b. 1864 - d. 1934) made the                              first landing on Antarctica since Davis. Three                              years later he led the first party to winter on                              the continent. 22 Feb 1902                Kaiser Wilhelm II Land (Kaiser-Wilhelm-II.-Land) or                              the Wilhelm II Coast (Wilhelm-II-Küste) discovered                              and named by Erich Dagobert von Drygalski (b. 1865                              - d. 1889), leader of the German Expedition, on the                              ship Gauss in Antarctica Jan 1902 - Apr 1903                              (Deutsche Südpolar-Expedition).  1 Apr 1903 - 22 Feb 1904  First permanent scientific station established in                              the Antarctic, at Laurie Island, South Orkneys by                              the Scottish National Antarctic expedition under                              William Speirs Bruce (b. 1867 - d. 1921). 22 Feb 1904                Argentina began to occupy Antarctic lands when                              purchasing the meteorological station belonging                              to the Scottish Dr. William Speirs Bruce, on                              Laurie island, South Orkney islands. 1911 - 1914                Australian explorer Douglas Mawson leads the                              Australasian Antarctic Expedition. 14 Dec 1911                Roald Amundsen (b. 1872 - d. 1928) of Norway reaches                              the South Pole; on 18 Jan 1912 U.K. Capt. Robert                              Falcon Scott (b. 1868 - d. 1912) located the South                              Pole but dies on the return trip. 28 Jan 1912                Lt. Shirase Nobu (b. 1861 - d. 1941) claims the                              Antarctic territory spanning the entirety of the                              Ross Ice Shelf for Japan as Yamato Yukihara ("The                              Japan Snow Plain"), claim not recognized by Japan                             (part of the area named the Shirase Coast in 1961).                              Japanese claims are renounced by the Treaty of San                              Francisco 8 Sep 1951 (ratified 28 Apr 1952). 21 Feb 1912                Queen Mary Land (or Queen Mary Coast) claimed for                              U.K. and named by Douglas Mawson (b. 1882 - d.                              1958) of Australia. 16 Aug 1923                Antarctic seas which comprised all the islands and                              territories between 160°E and 150°W longitudes                              situated south of 60° S annexed by the U.K.                              to New Zealand and is named Ross Dependency                              (by order of 30 Jul 1923). 21 Nov 1924                Adelie Land (Terre Adélie) is annexed by France. 28-29 Nov 1939             The first flyover of the South Pole is executed by                              Norwegian air pioneer, Bernt Balchen. 29 Nov 1929                U.S. explorer Richard E. Byrd (b. 1888 - d. 1957)                              made the first flight over the South Pole from                              Little America Base.  13 Jan 1930                Enderby Land is claimed for U.K. by Sir Douglas                              Mawson. 13 Jun 1933                British order annexes the part of Antarctica south of                              60° and between longitudes 45° E and 160° E                              (excluding French Terre Adelie 136°E to 142°E), and                              transfers it to Australia. 14 Jan 1939                Queen Maud Land (Dronning Maud Land) in Antarctica                              (45°E to 20°E), between the British and Australian                              claims, formally placed under the sovereignty of                              Norway. 19 Jan - 15 Feb 1939       The area 20°E to 10°W is explored by a German                              expedition led by Alfred Ritscher, but not claimed. Aug 1939                   Germany announces the formation of a German Antarctic                              sector between 4°59' E and 16°30' E, called                              Neuschwabenland (New Swabia Land), lying                              completely within the area that Norway already                              annexed; this claim never receives international                              approval and is not raised again after World War II  6 Nov 1940                Chilean Antarctic (Antártica Chilena), defined as                              between longitudes 53°W to 90°W, claimed by Chile. 13 Jan 1941                German commandos board and capture two Norwegian                               factory ships in the sea north of Queen Maud Land.                              By the end of the next day, the Germans had taken                              possession of three factory ships and eleven                              catchers. The German Navy subsequently used the                              waters of the Peninsula and the sub-Antarctic                              islands as a haven from which they could venture                              forth to attack allied shipping. Their main base                              was an obscure harbor on Kergulen Island.   8 Feb 1942                Argentine Antarctica (Antártida Argentina) claimed                              by Argentina between longitudes and 68° W and 24° W                              (formally taking possession 8 Nov 1942). 1943 - 1945                British dispatch a naval missions to Antarctica                              ("Operation Tabarin") which established the first                              permanent British scientific bases. 31 Oct 1956                First permanent station at South Pole built                              (Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station).  1 Jul 1957 - 31 Dec 1958  International Geophysical Year (IGY), scientists                              of 67 nations research the Antarctica environment. 24 Nov 1957 -  2 Mar 1958  First successful land traverse of Antarctica by                              British Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic expedition                              (CTAE) under Vivian Fuchs (b. 1908 - d. 1999)                              covers Weddell Sea to Ross Sea via the South                              Pole.  16 Dec 1957                South Geomagnetic Pole reached for the first time                              by a tractor traverse by the Soviet Union.   4 Jan 1958                Sir Edmund Hillary (b. 1919 - d. 2008) of New Zealand                              and his party become the first to reach the South                              Pole overland since Robert Falcon Scott.  1 Dec 1959                Antarctic Treaty signed in Washington, D.C. by 12                              nations. 23 Jun 1961                Antarctic Treaty enters into force.  7 Jan 1978                Argentine, Emilio Marcos Palma, becomes the first                              recorded human to be born in Antarctica. 11 Mar 1978                Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals                              (of 11 Feb 1972) enters into force. 28 Nov 1979                Air New Zealand flight TE901 crashes into Mt. Erebus                              (on Ross Island), killing all 257 aboard.  7 Apr 1982                Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine                              Living Resources (CCAMLR)(of 1 Aug 1980) enters                              into force.  1 Nov 1982                Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic                              Fauna and Flora (of 2 Jun 1964) enters into force. 13 Feb 1987 - Dec 1991     World Park Base a non-governmental year-round                              base located at Cape Evans on Ross Island in                              the Ross Dependency established by Greenpeace.  2 Jun 1988                Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral                              Resources (CRAMRA) signed.  6 Dec 1994                The Antarctica (Environmental Protection) Act 1994 is                              assented to, consolidating measures aimed at                              conserving the region's flora and fauna (which                              includes 18 species of penguin, 6 species of seal,                              and several rare species of whale) included in the                              Antarctic Treaty, and reinforcing the CCAMLR. 14 Jan 1998                Protocol on Environmental Protection to the                              Antarctic Treaty ("Madrid Protocol")(of 4 Oct                              1991) enters into force.  1 Sep 2004                Secretariat of Antarctic Treaty established in Buenos                              Aires, Argentina. Argentina Claim Australia Claim British Claim Chile Claim France Claim New Zealand Claim Norway Claim Brazil Germany South Africa Spain (Castile) Uruguay Antarctic Treaty Secretariat

    Antarctic Treaty — The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 Dec 1959 and entered into force on 23 Jun 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings.
    Summary: Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations; other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments; a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains un-ratified; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 Oct 1991 and entered into force 14 Jan 1998; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through six specific annexes: 1) environmental impact assessment, 2) conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and waste management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, 5) area protection and management and 6) liability arising from environmental emergencies; it prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in 2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Antarctic Treaty Secretariat

Executive Secretaries of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat (in Buenos Aires, Argentina)
 1 Sep 2004 - 31 Aug 2009  Johannes "Jan" Huber               (b. 1947)
                             (The Netherlands)
 1 Sep 2009 - 31 Aug 2017  Manfred Reinke (Germany)           (b. 1952)
 1 Sep 2017 - 31 Aug 2025  Albert Alexander Lluberas Bonaba
                             (Uruguay)
 1 Sep 2025 -              Francisco Javier Berguño Hurtado
                             (Chile)

Antarctic Treaty membership (58) 

Dates of  Membership	Member Nations
23 Jun 1961	Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Soviet Union1, United Kingdom, United States
14 Jun 1962	Czechoslovakia2
20 May 1965	Denmark
30 Mar 1967	The Netherlands
15 Sep 1971	Romania
19 Nov 1974	East Germany3
16 May 1975	Brazil
11 Sep 1978	Bulgaria
5 Feb 1979	West Germany3
11 Jan 1980	Uruguay
16 Mar 1981	Papua New Guinea4
18 Mar 1981	Italy
10 Apr 1981	Peru
31 Mar 1982	Spain
8 Jun 1983	China
19 Aug 1983	India
27 Jan 1984	Hungary
24 Apr 1984	Sweden
15 May 1984	Finland
16 Aug 1984	Cuba
28 Nov 1986	South Korea
8 Jan 1987	Greece
21 Jan 1987	North Korea
25 Aug 1987	Austria
15 Sep 1987	Ecuador
4 May 1988	Canada
31 Jan 1989	Colombia
15 Nov 1990	Switzerland
31 Jul 1991	Guatemala
28 Oct 1992	Ukraine
25 Jan 1996	Turkey5
1 Jan 1993	Czech Republic, Slovakia
24 May 1999	Venezuela
17 May 2001	Estonia
27 Dec 2006	Belarus
30 May 2008	Monaco
29 Jan 2010	Portugal
31 Oct 2011	Malaysia
1 Mar 2012	Pakistan
27 Jan 2015	Kazakhstan
23 Mar 2015	Mongolia
13 Oct 2015	Iceland
22 Apr 2019	Slovenia
11 Aug 2022	Costa Rica
14 Feb 2023	San Marino
22 May 2024	Saudi Arabia
11 Dec 2024	United Arab Emirates
1Soviet Union dissolved 25 Dec 1991, succeeded by Russia. 2Czechoslovakia dissolved 31 Dec 1992; on 1 Jan 1993 succeeded by Czech Republic and Slovakia. 3East and West Germany united 3 Oct 1990. 4date of deposit of notification of succession by Papua New Guinea; effective 16 Sep 1975 the date of its independence. 5from 1 Jun 2022 Türkiye.

Argentina

Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and the Island of the South Atlantic (Tierra del Fuego, Antárctica y Islas del Atlántico Sur); includes Argentine claim, 74°W and 25°W; overlaps British and Chilean claims. Claimed: 8 Feb 1942.

Australian Antarctic Territory Australian claim, 160°E to 142°E and 136°E to 45°E;
Claimed: 13 Jun 1933. 

Magellanes and Chilean Antarctica (Magallanes y Antárctica Chilena); includes Chilean claim, 53°W to 90°W; overlaps Argentine and British claims. Claimed: 6 Nov 1940.

French Southern and Antarctic Lands (Terres Australes et Antarctiques Françaises) Adelie Land; includes French claim, 142°E to 136°W. Claimed: 21 Nov 1924.

New Zealand Antarctic Territory (Ross Dependency) New Zealand claim, 160°E to 150°W. Claimed: 30 Jul 1923.

Norwegian Antarctic Territory (Dronning Maud Land) Queen Maud Land; Norwegian claim, 45°E to 20°E with Peter I Island. Claimed: 14 Jan 1938.

British Antarctic Territories (Graham Land) British claim, 20° W and 80°W; Argentine and Chilean claims overlap. Claimed: 21 Jul 1908.

Brazil

Brazilian Antarctica (Antártida Brasileira) proposed claim, 28°W to 53°W south of 60°; zone overlaps Argentine, British and Chilean claims. Zone of Interest first proposed: 1986.

Germany

New Swabia Land (Neuschwabenland) sector between 4°59' E and 16°30' E, overlaps Norwegian claim. Explored 19 Jan - 6 Feb 1939, Claimed: Aug 1939 (claim not recognized).

South African Antarctica South African unverified claim: 1963 - 1993?

Governorate of the Southern Land (Gobernación de la Terra Australis) nominally covered Tierra del Fuego, which was then considered a part of the continent of Terra Australis (Antarctica) and all the territories from the south of the Strait of Magellan. Spain (Castile) Nominal claim: 1539-1555.

Uruguayan Antarctica (Antártida Uruguaya), coordinates 0°W 25°W, overlapping with the Norwegian and British claims. Uruguay Proposed claim: 1973.

Antarctica International Disputes: The Antarctic Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government type entry); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and U.K.; Australia, Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or similar over 200 nm extensions seaward from their continental claims, but like the claims themselves, these zones are not accepted by other countries; 22 of 29 Antarctic consultative nations have made no claims to Antarctic territory, although Russia and the U.S. have reserved the right to do so (and do not recognize the claims of the other nations), and no country can make a new claim; no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west; the International Whaling Commission created a sanctuary around the entire continent to deter catches by countries claiming to conduct scientific whaling; Australia has established a similar preserve in the waters around its territorial claim.