to 1453 1453 - 1499 1499 - 1517 1517 - 1793 27 Jun 1793 - 1808,  1826 - 1867    1808 - 1826 Adopted 1867 & 5 Jun 1936   Map of Turkey Hear National Anthem  "İstiklâl Marşı" (Independence March) Text of National Anthem Adopted 12 Mar 1921 Constitution (7 Nov 1982) Map of  Ottoman Empire 1798-1923  Former Ottoman Anthems "Mahmudiye Marşı" (March of Mahmud; 1918-22 as Ottoman National March) (1829-1839, 1918-1 Nov 1922) "Mecidiye Marşı" (March of Abdülmecid) (1839-1861, 1876) Former Ottoman Anthems "Aziziye Marşı" (1861-1876) (March of Abdülâziz); "Hamidiye Marşı" (1876-1909); (March of Abdülhamid);  "Reşadiye Marşı" (1909-1918) (March of Mehmed Reşad) Former Constitutions (23 Dec 1876; 20 Jan 1921; 10 Apr 1924; 9 Jun 1961) Capital: Ankara (Kostantiniyye [Constantinople] 29 May 1453-13 Oct 1923; Edirne [Adrianople] 1365-1453; Bursa 1326-1365) Currency: Turkish Lira (TRY); 1881-1922 Ottoman Empire Lira (XOTL); 1688-1881 Ottoman  Empire Piastre (XTOP) National Holiday: 29 Oct (1923) Cumhuriyet Bayramı (Republic Day) Population: 82,017,514 (2019) 23,800,000 (1914) 16,000,000 (1683) GDP: $2.19 trillion (2017) Exports: $166.2 billion (2017) Imports: $225.1 billion (2017) Ethnic groups: Turkish 70-75%, Kurdish 18%, other minorities 7-12% (2016) Total Active Armed Forces: 355,200 (2018) U.S. Forces: 1,778 (2023) Merchant marine: 1,234 ships (2019) Religions: Muslim 98% (of which Sunni 81.5%, Shi'a 3.9%, non-orthodox Alevi 10.6%, Alawites 1%, Quranist Muslims 1%), Spiritual but not religious 1%, others 0.8% Christian 0.2% (2017-2018) International Organizations/Treaties: ACS (observer), ADB (nonregional), AfDB (nonregional), AG, AIIB, ANT, APA, APM, AU (observer), BIS, BRICS (applicant), BSEC, BTWC, CAN (observer), CBSS (observer), CD, CE, CERN (associate), CFE (suspended), CICA, CPLP (associate observer), CTBT, D-8, DC (observer), EAPC, EBRD, ECO, ENMOD (signatory), ESA (cooperating state), ESCR, EU (candidate), Eutelsat, FAO, FATF, G-20, GUAM (observer), IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, ICSID, IDA, IDB, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IORA (partner), IPU, IRENA, ISA (observer), ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, Moon, MTCR, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NPT, NSG, NTBT, OAS (observer), OECD, OIC, OPCW, OS, OSCE, OST, OTS, PA (observer), PAM, Paris Club (associate), PCA, PIF (partner), SCO (dialogue partner), SECP, SELEC, SICA (observer), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFCC, UNFCC-KP, UNFCC-PA, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNRWA, UNWTO, UPU, WA, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, ZC Turkey Index Chronology 74 BC - 17 Jan 395 AD      Part of the Roman Empire (Bithynia annexed 74 BC,                              Cappadocia in 18 AD, and Pontus in 62 AD). 17 Jan 395                 Part of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. 1068                       Most of Anatolia part of the Great Seljuk Empire. c.1100                     Seljuk of Rûm centered at Konya, and by 1240                              occupies  most of Antaolia. c.1224                     After the death of Chingis (Genghis) Khan, Süleyman                              Şah of the clan (gens) of Kaji (Kayı), one of the                              foremost of the Oğuz (Oghuz), settles in Armenia. c.1231                     Tribe withdraws, Suleiman dies by drowning when his                              horse stumbles, followers disperse into Anatolia                              and Syria; of four sons, two returned to Khwarazm,                              two others moved further, of which in the process                              Ertuğrul (Ertoghrul) joins a battle, supporting                              smaller (Seljuks) force to victory against larger                              force of Mongols, and he becomes follower of the                              former and is given near ancient Dorylaeum                              (Dorýlaion) in Phrygia, by Kayqubad II Seljuk                              (Saldjuq) Sultan of Rûm. 26 Jun 1243                Mongols defeat Seljuk of Rûm at Battle of Köse Dağ. c.1289                     Othman (Osman) is given a fief around Melangeia                              (Melángeia), in Sangarius (Sakarya) River valley                              in northern Bithynia, with insignia of nobility. 27 Jul 1302                Othman (Osman) defeats the Byzantine army at Battle                              of Bapheus, heralding the final capture of                              Bithynia by the Turks. 1308                       Last Seljuq Sultan Mesud II, vassal of Il-khanate,                              is killed. The dissolution of the Seljuq state                              leaves many small Anatolian Turkish principalities                              (or beyliks), among them that of the Ottomans                              (Osmanoğlu), which eventually conquers the rest                              reuniting Anatolia.  6 Apr 1326                Turks capture Bursa (Proúsa) from the Eastern Roman                              (Byzantine) Empire. 29 Jul 1326                Following the death of Othman (Osman), the ruling                              house becomes the 'Othmanlı (Ottoman dynasty)                              (Âl-i Osman [Kayı boyu]).  2 Mar 1331                Turks take Nicaea (İznik) from the Byzantines. c.1346                     Karasi (Karasioğlu) annexed by the Ottomans. Mar 1354                   Turks seize Gallipoli (Gelibolu) from Byzantines. Jul 1362                   Turks capture Adrianoúpolis (Edirne) from the                              Byzantines. 1371                       Turks begin the conquest of Thessaly (finished                              1395/1396). 1390                       Aydın (Aydınoğlu), Menteshe (Mentesheoğlu), and                              Sarukhan (Sarukhanoğlu) are annexed by the                              Ottomans. 1391                       Hamid (Hamidoğlu) and Jandar (İsfendiyaroğlu),                              and from 1398 Eretna (Eretnaoğlu), annexed by the                              Ottomans. 20 Jul 1402                Battle of Ankara (Angora), Timur (Tamerlane) defeats                              Ottoman forces. Bayezid commits suicide in                              captivity. 20 Jul 1402 -  5 Jul 1413  Ottoman Civil War, also called the "interregnum                              period" (Fetret devri). 10 Jun 1422 - Sep 1422     Ottoman siege of Constantinople. 1428                       Germiyan (Germiyanoğlu) bequeathed to Ottoman ruler. 29 May 1453                Constantinople (Kostantiniyye), now İstanbul,                              captured by the Ottomans (having been under siege                              since 6 Apr 1453), from the Eastern Roman                              (Byzantine) Empire, becoming its capital. 29 May 1453                Ottoman (or Osmanli) State or the Ottoman Empire                              (Devlet-i Osmaniyye; in modern Turkish: Osmanlı                              Devleti [Ottoman State]). Most common term of                              reference, not fixed by legislative acts, but used                              in the 1876 Constitution (the Ottoman capture                              of Constantinople taken as the notional date for                              the beginning of the polity style). 29 May 1460                Morea despotate captured by the Ottomans. 15 Aug 1461                Trebizond (Trabzon), the last Byzantine holdout                              state, is conquered by the Ottoman Empire. 1475                       Karaman (Karamanoğlu) annexed by Ottomans. 1516                       Ramadan (Ramazanoğlu) incorporated into the                              Ottoman Empire. 1522                       Dulkadir (Dulkadiroğlu) annexed by Ottomans 27 Sep 1529 – 15 Oct 1529  First Ottoman siege of Vienna. 1534                       Afshar (Afsharoğlu) annexed by the Ottomans. 18 May 1565 -  8 Sep 1565  Ottoman siege of Malta.  7 Oct 1571                Battle of Lepanto, Ottomans defeated by the Holy                              League (including Spain, Venice, Genoa, Knights of                              Malta, Papal States, etc.) off Patras, Morea. 1589                       Beylerbeyi Janissary revolt. 1606                       Revolt of Kalender Oghlu in Sarukhan. Aug 1627 - 18 Sep 1628     Rebellion of Abaza Mehmed Pasha in Erzurum. 12 Aug 1648                Atmeydanı soldiers revolt.  4 Mar 1656 -  8 Mar 1656  Çınar soldiers revolt. 17 Jul 1683 - 12 Sep 1683  Second Ottoman siege of Vienna. 19 Jul 1703 - 22 Aug 1703  Janissary revolt in Edirne.  1 Oct 1730                Janissary revolt led by Patrona Halil.  6 Mar 1807 - 12 Aug 1807  Russian blockade of Constantinople. 25 Oct 1807 - 13 Jul 1808  Janissary revolt led Kabakçı Mustafa. 1829 - 1830                Revolt of Atçalı Kel Mehmet in Aydın province.  6 May 1833 - Jan 1841     Egypt annexes Syria (incl. Lebanon, Palestine) and                              to administer Crete, Adana, Hejaz by Convention of                              Kütahya (revoked buy the Convention of London                              of 27 Nov 1840). 23 Nov 1876                Ottoman Constitution established (rescinded 13 Feb                              1878, restored 24 Jul 1908). 24 Jul 1908                Constitution of 1876 restored by the Young Turks. 13 Jan 1913                Ottoman coup d'etat carried out by members of the.                              Committee of Union and Progress. 16 May 1915 - 12 Mar 1918  Russian occupation of western Ottoman Armenia. 13 Nov 1918 -  2 Oct 1923  Allied forces occupy Constantinople and from 10 Nov                              1918 the Bosporus, the Dardanelles, islands of                              İmbros, Lemnos, Samothrace, and Bozcaada (Tenedos)                              (see Straits Zone). 27 Nov 1918 - 23 Jul 1939  French administration of Hatay.  2 Dec 1918 -  7 Jan 1922  French occupation of Cilicia. 29 Apr 1919 -  5 Jul 1921  Italian occupation of Antalya. 15 May 1919 -  8 Sep 1922  Greece occupies Smyrna (İzmir) and surrounding areas                              and most of Eastern Thrace. 19 May 1919 - 11 Oct 1922  Turkish war of liberation. 23 Apr 1920                Grand National Assembly constituted at Ankara as a                              dissident authority on the territory of the                              Ottoman Empire. 10 Aug 1920                By Treaty of Sèvres (not ratified), Ottoman Empire                              cedes Syria and Mount Lebanon to France, and                               French to occupy Cilicia; Cyprus, Palestine,                               Transjordan, and Mesopotamia (Iraq) ceded to                               the U.K.; the Dodecanese Islands and Rhodes                               recognized as Italian and Antalya to be                               occupied by Italy; Aegean islands of Imbros and                              Tenedos, eastern Thrace (but not Constantinople)                              and Izmir (Smyrna) district under sovereignty of                              Greece; Hejaz and Armenia to be independent;                               with Kurdistan to be autonomous; and the                               Zone of the Straits demilitarized and under                              Allied occupation.   7 Feb 1921                State of Turkey is declared, with executive and                              legislative authority vested in the Grand                              National Assembly.  2 Nov 1922                Grand National Assembly is declared the sole state                              authority of Turkey and successor to the Ottoman                              imperial house, thus de-recognizing the authority                              of the ruler of the Ottoman Empire (retroactively                              from 16 Mar 1920).  4 Nov 1922                Collapse of Ottoman government in Constantinople. 24 Jul 1923                By Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey regains all the lands                              occupied by Greece; Turkish sovereignty over the                              western Armenia, Kurdish areas, Cilicia, and                               Antalya is restored; and the Straits remain                              demilitarized but allied occupation is ended                              (effective 6 Aug 1924). 29 Oct 1923                Republic of Turkey  3 Mar 1924                Caliphate is abolished.  1 Nov 1928                Latin alphabet adopted for Turkish (effective                              1 Jan 1929). 28 Mar 1930                Kostantiniyye (Constantinople) formally renamed                              İstanbul. 21 Jul 1936                Turkey re-occupies the former demilitarized Straits.   29 Jun 1939                Hatay re-incorporated into Turkey.  1 Jun 2022                Communication to UN that Turkish short-form name                              Türkiye is to be used in all languages. Antalya (Adalia) (1919-1921) Cilicia (1919-1921) Hatay (1918-1939) Smyrna (Izmir) (1919-1922) Zone of the Straits (1918-1936) South-Western Caucasus (1918-1919) Kurdish Polities (1816-1835, 1927-1931) Russian Occupied Western Armenia (1915-1918) Pera and Galatea (1273-1453) Ecumenical Orthodox Patriarchate of Constantinople Historic Maps of Turkey

Note: names of Ottoman rulers are given with their common modern name followed by nicknames in quotes, with their given name without ordinal number (which was never used officially) and patronymic in parentheses (Names with invocation as found on the calligraphic seals or signatures known as tughras are not listed).

Beys
c.1299 – 29 Jul 1326       Osman I "Gazı"                     (b. 1259 - d. 1326)
                             (Othman Hân)
29 Jul 1326 - Mar 1362     Orhan "Gazı"                       (b. 1281 – d. 1362)
                             (Orhan bin Othman Hân)
Mar 1362 - 1383            Murad I "Hüdavendigâr", "Şehit"    (b. 1326 - d. 1389)
                             (Murad bin Orhan Hân)
Sultans (title Padışah)¹
1383 - 15 Jun 1389         Murad I "Hüdavendigâr", "Şehit"    (s.a.)
                             (Murad bin Orhan Hân)
15 Jun 1389 - 20 Jul 1402  Bayezid I "Yıldırım",              (b. 1354 - d. 1403)
                             "Sultân-î İklim-i Rûm"
                             (Bayezid bin Murad Hân)
20 Jul 1402 – 26 May 1421  Mehmed I "Çelebi"                  (b. 1389 - d. 1421)
                             (Mehmed bin Bayezid Hân)
                             (in eastern Anatolia to 5 Jul 1413)
20 Jul 1402 - 17 Feb 1411  Süleyman "Çelebi"                  (b. 1377 - d. 1411)
                             (Süleyman bin Bayezid Hân)
                             (co-sultan in Rumelia)
1403 - 1406                İsa "Çelebi"                       (b. 1380 - d. 1406)
                             (İsa bin Bayezid Hân)
                             (in rebellion; in western Anatolia)
18 Feb 1411 -  5 Jul 1413  Musa "Çelebi"                      (b. 1388 - d. 1413)
                             (Musa bin Bayezid Hân)
                             (co-sultan in Rumelia)
26 May 1421 - Dec 1444     Murad II "Koca", "Gazı" (1st time) (b. 1404 - d. 1451)
                             (Murad bin Mehmed Hân)
Dec 1444 - May 1446        Mehmed II (1st time)               (b. 1432 - d. 1481)
                             (Mehmed bin Murad Hân)
May 1446 -  3 Feb 1451     Murad II "Koca", "Gazı" (2nd time) (s.a.)
                             (Murad bin Mehmed Hân)
 3 Feb 1451 –  3 May 1481  Mehmed II "Fatih", "Gazı"          (s.a.)
                             (2nd time)
c.20 May 1481–24 Apr 1512  Bayezid II "Adlî", "Sofu", "Veli"  (b. 1446 - d. 1512)
                             (Bayezid bin Mehmed Hân)
31 May 1481 - 20 Jun 1481  Cem (in dissidence)                (b. 1459 - d. 1495)
                             (Cem bin Mehmed Hân)
24 Apr 1512–21/22 Sep 1520 Selim I "Yavuz"                    (b. 1467 - d. 1520)
                             (Selim-şah bin Bayezid Hân)
30 Sep 1520 –  7 Sep 1566  Süleyman I "Kanuni", "Gazı",       (b. 1494 - d. 1566)
                             "Muhteşem", "Sahib-i Kiran",
                             "Sahib-ül Aşîret el Kamilet"
                             (Süleyman-şah bin Selim-şah Hân)
30 Sep 1566 – 15 Dec 1574  Selim II "Sarı", "Mest",           (b. 1524 - d. 1574)
                             "Sarhoş", "Sığır"
                             (Selim-şah bin Süleyman-şâh Hân)
22 Dec 1574 – 16 Jan 1595  Murad III                          (b. 1546 - d. 1595)
                             (Şah Murad bin Selim-şah Hân)
27 Jan 1595 – 21 Dec 1603  Mehmed III "Adlî", "Eğri-fatihi"   (b. 1566 - d. 1603)
                             (Mehmed bin Murad Hân)
21 Dec 1603 – 22 Nov 1617  Ahmed I "Bahtî"                    (b. 1590 - d. 1617)
                             (Şah Ahmed bin Mehmed Hân)
22 Nov 1617 – 26 Feb 1618  Mustafa I "Deli" (1st time)        (b. 1592 - d. 1639)
                             (Şah Mustafa bin Mehmed Hân)
26 Feb 1618 – 19 May 1622  Osman II "Genç", "Şehit"           (b. 1603 - d. 1622)
                             (Şah Osman bin Ahmed Hân)
19 May 1622 – 10 Sep 1623  Mustafa I "Deli" (2nd time)        (s.a.)
                             (Şah Mustafa bin Mehmed Hân)
10 Sep 1623 –  9 Feb 1640  Murad IV "Gazı", "Fatih-i Bağdad", (b. 1612 - d. 1640)
                             "Sahib-i Kiran"
                             (Şah Murad bin Ahmed Hân)
 9 Feb 1640 –  8 Aug 1648  İbrahim I "Deli"                   (b. 1615 - d. 1648)
                             (Şah İbrahim bin Ahmed Hân)
 8 Aug 1648 –  9 Nov 1687  Mehmed IV "Avcı"                   (b. 1641 - d. 1692)
                             (Şah Mehmed bin İbrahim Hân)
 9 Nov 1687 – 22 Jun 1691  Süleyman II                        (b. 1644 - d. 1691)
                             (Şah Süleyman bin İbrahim Hân)
22 Jun 1691 –  6 Feb 1695  Ahmed II                           (b. 1642 - d. 1695)
                             (Şah Ahmed bin İbrahim Hân)
 6 Feb 1695 - 22 Aug 1703  Mustafa II "Gazı"                  (b. 1664 - d. 1703)
                             (Şah Mustafa bin Mehmed Hân)
22 Aug 1703 -  1 Oct 1730  Ahmed III                          (b. 1673 - d. 1736)
                             (Şah Ahmed bin Mehmed Hân)
 1 Oct 1730 - 13 Dec 1754  Mahmud I "Gazı", "Kambur"          (b. 1696 - d. 1754)
                             (Mahmud Hân bin Mustafa Hân)
13 Dec 1754 - 30 Oct 1757  Osman III                          (b. 1696 - d. 1757)
                             (Osman Hân bin Mustafa Hân)
30 Oct 1757 - 21 Jan 1774  Mustafa III                        (b. 1717 - d. 1774)
                             (Mustafa Hân bin Ahmed Hân)
21 Jan 1774 -  7 Apr 1789  Abdülhamid I                       (b. 1725 - d. 1789)
                             (Abdülhamid Hân bin Ahmed Hân)
 7 Apr 1789 - 29 May 1807  Selim III "Cihandar", "İlhami"     (b. 1761 - d. 1808)
                             (Selim Hân bin Mustafa Hân)
29 May 1807 - 28 Jul 1808  Mustafa IV                         (b. 1779 - d. 1808)
                             (Muustafa Hân bin Abdülhamid Hân)
28 Jul 1808 -  1 Jul 1839  Mahmud II "Adlî", "Gazı"           (b. 1785 - d. 1839)
                             (Mahmud Hân bin Abdülhamid Hân)
 1 Jul 1839 - 25 Jun 1861  Abdülmecid I "Gazı"                (b. 1823 - d. 1861)
                             (Abdülmecid Hân bin Mahmud Hân) 
25 Jun 1861 - 30 May 1876  Abdülaziz I                        (b. 1830 - d. 1876)
                             (Abdülâziz Hân bin Mahmud Hân)
30 May 1876 - 31 Aug 1876  Murad V                            (b. 1840 - d. 1904)
                             (Mehmed Murad Hân bin Abdülmecid Hân)
31 Aug 1876 - 27 Apr 1909  Abdülhamid II "Kanlı", "Bedros"    (b. 1842 - d. 1918)
                             (Abdülhamid Hân bin Abdülmecid Hân)
27 Apr 1909 -  3 Jul 1918  Mehmed V                           (b. 1844 - d. 1918)
                             (Mehmed Hân bin Abdülmecid Hân)
 4 Jul 1918 -  4 Nov 1922  Mehmed VI "Kara"                   (b. 1861 - d. 1926)
                             (Mehmed Vahideddin Hân bin Abdülmecid Hân)
                             (leaves national territory on 17 Jun 1922,
                             derecognized by Constituent Assembly 2 Nov 1922,
                             deposed as caliph [Halife] on 19 Nov 1922)
24 Nov 1922 -  3 Mar 1924  Abdülmecid II                      (b. 1868 - d. 1944)
                             (Abdülmecid bin Abdülâziz Hân) 
                             (caliph [Halife] only, deposed 3 Mar 1924)
Presidents of the Turkish Grand National Assembly
(in opposition to the Ottoman government to 4 Nov 1922)
23 Apr 1920 - 24 Apr 1920  Şerif Bey (acting)                 (b. 1845 - d. 1929)  Non-party
                            (= Mehmet Şerif Avcıoğlu)
24 Apr 1920 - 11 Aug 1923  Gazı Mustafa Kemal (1st time)      (b. 1881 - d. 1938)  Mil 
11 Aug 1923                Abdürrahman Şeref Bey (acting)     (b. 1853 - d. 1925)  Non-party  
11 Aug 1923 - 13 Aug 1923  Ali Fuad Paşa (provisional)        (b. 1882 - d. 1968)  Mil
13 Aug 1923 - 29 Oct 1923  Gazı Mustafa Kemal (2nd time)      (s.a.)               Mil
Presidents
29 Oct 1923 - 10 Nov 1938  Gazı Mustafa Kemal                 (s.a.)               CHP 
                             (from 24 Nov 1934, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk)
10 Nov 1938 - 11 Nov 1938  Mustafa Abdülhalik Renda (acting)  (b. 1881 - d. 1948)  CHP
11 Nov 1938 - 22 May 1950  Mustafa İsmet İnönü                (b. 1884 - d. 1973)  CHP
22 May 1950 - 27 May 1960  Mahmud Celâleddin Bayar            (b. 1883 - d. 1986)  DP
27 May 1960 - 28 Mar 1966  Cemal Gürsel                       (b. 1895 - d. 1966)  Mil; 1961
                             (chairman of the Committee of National Unity to        Non-party
                             28 May 1960, Head of State 28 May 1960 - 26 Oct 1961)
 2 Feb 1966 - 28 Mar 1966  İbrahim Şevki Atasagun             (b. 1899 - d. 1984)  Non-party  
                             (acting for Gürcel)
28 Mar 1966 - 28 Mar 1973  Cevdet Sunay                       (b. 1900 - d. 1982)  Non-party
28 Mar 1973 -  6 Apr 1973  Mehmet Tekin Arıburun (acting)     (b. 1905 - d. 1993)  Non-party
 6 Apr 1973 -  6 Apr 1980  Fahri Sabit Korutürk               (b. 1903 - d. 1987)  Non-party
 6 Apr 1980 - 12 Sep 1980  İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil (acting)   (b. 1908 - d. 1993)  AP
12 Sep 1980 -  9 Nov 1989  Ahmet Kenan Evren                  (b. 1917 - d. 2015)  Non-party 
                             (Head of State and chairman of National
                             Security Council to 9 Nov 1982)
 9 Nov 1989 - 17 Apr 1993  Halil Turgut Özal                  (b. 1927 - d. 1993)  AnaP 
17 Apr 1993 - 16 May 1993  Ahmet Hüsamettin Cindoruk (acting) (b. 1933)            DYP
16 May 1993 - 16 May 2000  Süleyman Demirel                   (b. 1924 - d. 2015)  DYP
16 May 2000 - 28 Aug 2007  Ahmet Necdet Sezer                 (b. 1941)            Non-party
28 Aug 2007 - 28 Aug 2014  Abdullah Gül                       (b. 1950)            AKP
28 Aug 2014 -              Recep Tayyip Erdoğan               (b. 1954)            AKP

 ¹in this record, the only term denoting the ruler's style is Padışah (Padishah), which is recognized by all as signifying his "imperial" status, and is routinely used when referring to the Ottoman sovereigns. In addition to Padışah, each ruler used an immense variety of additional titles, varying from one use to another. Although some sources claim this variety to have formed the 'official style' of the Ottoman rulers, the styles actually used in official documents tend to be more concise. In addition to Padışah, each ruler used a variety of additional titles, varying from one use to another couched in elaborate formula, made up of a mixture of Arabic, Persian, and Ottoman Turkish probably left to each secretary to elaborate as the occasion demanded. An instrument issued under the authority of Süleyman-şah bin Selim-şah Hân which reads in translation as: 

  "The Sultan of Sultans, the proof of Emperors, the distributor of crowns to the monarchs of the surface of the earth, the shadow of God on the lands, the Sultan and the Padışah of the White Sea, the Black Sea, Rumelia, Anatolia, Karaman, of Rum, of the provinces of the Zulkadırs, of Diyarbakır, of Kurdistan, of Azerbaycan, of Acem [Persia], of Şam [Damascus], of Halep [Aleppo], of Mısır [Egypt], of Mecca and Medina, of Jerusalem, of all the lands of Arabia, of the Yemen, and of the many lands conquered by the irresistible power of my noble fathers and illustrious ancestors - may God illuminate their manifestations -, and of the many lands which my glorious and august majesty has conquered with a flaming sword."

   A document addressed to the Venetian state in 1641 from İbrahim I found in Theunissen (1998, p. 626) and recorded as: "sultan-i selatin-i cihan ve bürhan-i havakin-i devran tacbahş-i husrevan-i ru-i zemin sultan İbrahim han ibn Ahmed han ibn Mehemmed han ibn Murad han ibn Selim han ibn Süleyman han ibn Selim hanın." 

   The Office of Halife (Caliph): The claim that, upon the conquest of Egypt in 1517 and the displacement of the last Abbasid holder of the office, al-Mutawakkil III, the office and style of Khalifat Rasul Allah, Amir al-Mu'minin (Halife-i Resulullah, Emirülmüminin)("Successor to the Messenger of God, Commander of the Faithful") was transferred to the Ottoman ruler by a formal deed of assignment has no corroboration from any contemporary source. A variety of "khalifal" titles was used by Ottoman rulers, and accorded to them by others in diplomatic correspondence and treaties. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (21 July 1774 N.S.) between the Ottoman and the Russian Empires for the first time ceded territory held to be under Ottoman rule; in it the Ottoman side consequently forcefully asserted the remaining authority of the Ottoman ruler in his capacity as halife (khalifa) over all Muslims in the ceded territories. The assertion of khalifal status and authority became from that moment a significant component of the political understanding of the nature and attributes of the office of Padışah.  The status of the Padışah as halife was given formal sanction in the Ottoman Constitution of 23 Nov 1876 (rescinded 13 Feb 1878, restored 24 Jul 1908). Upon the extinction of the Ottoman Empire by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on 1 Nov 1922, the ruler, Mehmed VI (s.a.), continued to be recognized as halife; after his flight from Istanbul on 17 Nov 1922, he was declared deposed from the office of halife by a fetva, endorsed by the Şeyhülislam (Sheikh al-Islam) and ratified by the Grand National Assembly on 19 Nov 1922, and replaced on that date by Abdülmecid bin Abdülâziz Hân, who was installed on 24 Nov 1922. The office of halife was abolished by the Grand National Assembly on 3 Mar 1924.

Ottoman titles: Agha (Ağa) = General officer; Bey/Beg = Chieftain; Beylerbey = Governor-general; Beyzade = Son of a Bey; Bostanji/Bostandji (Bostancı) = Palace guard; Chelebi (Çelebi) = Gentleman; Chavush (Çavuş) = Usher/messenger; Damat (Damad) = ("bridegroom") Prince Consort; Defterdar = Treasurer; Deli = Calvary captain; Effendi (Efendi) = Master (or Lord); Emin = Intendant; Emir = Commander; Ghazi (Gazi) = Warrior; Gonnullu (Gönüllü) = Military Veteran; Haji (Hacı) = Pilgrim to Mecca; Hoja (Hoca) = Adviser; Kanuni = Legislator; Kapudan Pasha (Kaptan Paşa) = Admiral; Kazi (Kadı) = Judge; Kethüda/kehya = Lieutenant; Khan (Hân) = Sovereign; Lala = Tutor; Mirza = Prince; Mutasarrıf = Administrator; Nishanji (Nişancı) = Chancellor; Padishah (Padişah) = Emperor; Pasha (Paşa) = Sir/Lord; Pashazade (Paşazade) = Son of a Pasha; Reis (Rais) = Naval Captain; Sardar (Sidar, Serdar) = Headmaster; Shehzade Sultan (Şehzade Sultan) = Sultan Imperial Prince; Silahdar = Master-General/Arm-Bearer; Sultanzade = Son of a Sultan; Wali (Vali) = Viceroy; Yaya = Fief holder.

Territorial Disputes: Complex maritime, air, and territorial disputes with Greece in the Aegean Sea; status of North Cyprus question remains; Syria and Iraq protest Turkish hydrological projects to control upper Euphrates waters; Turkey has expressed concern over the status of Kurds in Iraq; Syria did not surrender its irredentist claim to Hatay until 2005; in 2009, Swiss mediators facilitated an accord re-establishing diplomatic ties between Armenia and Turkey, but neither side has ratified the agreement and the rapprochement effort has faltered; Tomb of Suleyman Shah (Turkish: Süleyman Şah Türbesi) is a sovereign exclave of Turkey situated within Syria's Aleppo governorate in accordance with the Ankara Agreement of 20 Oct 1921 (it is the burial place of Süleyman Shah grandfather of Osman I the founder of the Ottoman Empire); Turkish authorities have complained that blasting from quarries in Armenia might be damaging the medieval ruins of Ani, on the other side of the Arpacay valley; dispute with Syria concerning the Turkish occupation of parts of North Syria since Aug 2016.

Party abbreviations: AKP = Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi (Justice and Development Party, populist, social conservative, nationalist, neo-Ottomanist, est.14 Aug 2001); AnaP = Anavatan Partisi (Motherland Party, liberal conservative, nationalist, 20 May 1983-31 Oct 2009, re-est.11 Sep 2011); CHP = Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (Republican People's Party, social-democratic, Kemalist, 9 Sep 1923-16 Oct 1981, re-est.9 Sep 1992); DSP = Demokratik Sol Parti (Democratic Left Party, social-democratic, Kemalist, est.14 Nov 1985); Mil = Military;
- Former parties: AP = Adalet Partisi (Justice Party, conservative, former DP, 11 Feb 1961 - 16 Oct 1981); CGP = Cumhuriyetçi Güven Partisi (Republican Reliance Party, to 4 May 1973 called Nationalistic Reliance Party, split from CHP, 12 May 1967-16 Oct 1981); CUP = İttihad ve Terakki Fırkası/Birlik ve İlerleme Partisi (Committee of Union and Progress, "Young Turks", constitutional monarchist, nationalist, 1913-18 only legal party, 1889-1918); DP = Demokrat Partisi (Democratic Party, liberal conservative, 7 Jan 1946 - 29 Sep 1960); DYP = Doğru Yol Partisi (True Path Party, liberal conservative, former AP, renamed Demokrat Parti in 2007, merged into AnAP, 23 Jun 1983-27 May 2007); RP = Refah Partisi (Welfare Party, Islamic conservative, 19 Jul 1983-16 Jan 1998); SHP = Sosyaldemokrat Halkçı Parti (Social Democratic People's Party, reformist, populist, nationalist, merger of Social Democracy Party and People's Party, 3 Nov 1985-18 Feb 1995, merged with CHP)

---

Antalya (Adalia)

28 Mar 1919                Italians occupy Antalya (Adalia), Kaş, Silifke, and on 23 Jul 1919
                             Muğla (and Fethiye, Bodrum, and Marmaris on 11 May 1919). Antalya
                             vilayet had been promised by the Allies as an Italian 'zone of
                             interest' in the Treaty of London of 1915.
 5 Jul 1921                Italian evacuation of Antalya.

Italian Commander
28 Mar 1919 - 29 Apr 1919  Alessandro Ciano                   (b. 1871 - d. 1945)
Commanders of the Royal Italian Expeditionary Corps in Anatolia
29 Apr 1919 - 24 Jul 1919  Giuseppe Battistoni                (b. 1869 - d. 1921)
24 Jul 1919 - 17 Aug 1919  Luigi Bongiovanni                  (b. 1866 - d. 1941)
Commanders of the Royal Italian Expeditionary Corps in the Eastern Mediterranean
17 Aug 1919 - 18 Dec 1919  Vittorio Elia                      (b. 1859 - d. 1944)
18 Dec 1919 -  7 Aug 1920  Achille Porta                      (b. 1868 - d. 1953)
 7 Aug 1920 - 29 Apr 1922  Giorgio Fusoni

Governors of Antalya Vilayet
1918 - 1919                Firuzan Bey
1919                       Talat (Kişmir) Bey
1919 - 1920                Cemal Bey
1920                       Kemal Bey
Nov 1920 - Aug 1921        Aşir Atlı                          (b. 1881 - d. 1957)
1921                       Fahrettin Bey
1921 -  8 Oct 1923         Hilmi Uran Bey                     (b. 1886 - d. 1957)

 6 Dec 1918                British forces occupy Kilis (and Antep 15 Jan 1919, Maraş 22 Feb
                             1919, and Urfa 24 Mar 1919).
11-19 Dec 1918             French forces occupy Dörtyol, Mersin, Tarsus, Ceyhan, Adana,
                             İslâhiye, Hassa, and Osmaniye.
27 Dec 1918                French forces occupy Pozantı (and Kozan 7 Mar 1919).
 1 Feb 1919                French occupation forces assume civil administration of Cilicia
                             (Cilicie), with headquarters in Adana.
29-30 Oct 1919             French forces replace British forces in Kilis, Maraş and Urfa (and
                             Antep on 5 Nov 1919).
11 Feb 1920                French withdraw from Maraş (and Urfa 11 Apr 1920, Pozantı 30 May
                             1920, and Antep 2 Jun 1920 which is re-occupied 9 Feb 1921).
 4 Aug 1920                Local Armenians, Greeks, and Arabs led by Mihran Damadian
                             (b. 1863 - d. 1945) declare the independence of Cilicia, but
                             are suppressed by the French on 5 Aug 1920.
10 Aug 1920                By Treaty of Sèvres Osmaniye, Ceyhan, Dörtyol, Hassa, Antep, Kilis,
                             Urfa, and Mardin, along with about two thirds of the Konya-Nusaybi
                             section of the Baghdad Railway are included in Mandatory Syria,
                             while Mersin, Tarsus, Adana, Pozanti and Kozan were not
                             (treaty was not ratified).
20 Oct 1921                France agrees to evacuate Cilicia by the Franco-Turkish Agreement
                             of Ankara (replacing the Cilicia Peace Treaty of 9 Mar 1921).
13 Nov 1921 -  4 Jan 1921  French withdraw from İslâhiye, Hassa, Kilis, Antep, Tarsus,
                             Mersin, Dörtyol, Ceyhan, and Adana (and Osmaniye 7 Jan 1922).
 5 Jan 1922                Turkish forces enter Adana. 

French Commander of the 1st Division of the Levant and of the Territory of Cilicia
 2 Dec 1918 - 20 Sep 1920  Julien Claude Marie Sosthène Dufieux (b. 1873 - d. 1959)  Mil 

Chief Administrators in Armenia (from 1919, Chief of Administrative Control of Cilicia)
Dec 1918 -  1 Feb 1919     Louis Romieu                         (b. 1872 - d. 1943)  Mil
 1 Feb 1919 - 31 Aug 1920  Édouard Brémond                      (b. 1868 - d. 1948)  Mil
                             (appointed 25 Dec 1918)
31 Aug 1920 -  4 Sep 1920  Pierre Capitrel (1st time)(acting)   (b. 1869 - d. 1943)  Mil
 4 Sep 1920 - 20 Sep 1920  Hassler (acting)                                          Mil
20 Sep 1920 - c.Nov 1921   Pierre Capitrel (2nd time)           (s.a.)               Mil
                             (administration)
Sep 1920 -  5 Jan 1922     Julien Claude Marie Sosthène Dufieux (s.a.)               Mil
                             (military and civilian affairs)

Governors of Adana Vilayet
Dec 1918 - Sep 1919        Nâzım Bey (acting)                   (b. 1872 - d. 1936)
 2 Nov 1919 - Jun 1920     Mehmet Celâl Bey                     (b. 1863 - d. 1926)
 1 Jun 1920 - 20 Dec 1920  Bağdadi Abdurrahman Efendi           (b. 1857 - d. 1952)

 9 Nov 1918                British troops occupy İskenderun (Alexandretta) kaza (district)
                             of the Ottoman Aleppo vilayet.
27 Nov 1918                Sandjak of Alexandretta (İskenderun Sancağı/Sandjak d'Alexandrette)
                             created.      
 7 Dec 1918                French troops occupy Antakya (Antioch).
10 Aug 1920                Sandjak of Alexandretta part of French Mandate of Syria.
29 Oct 1921                Formally ceded to France by Turkey by Ankara Agreement of 20 Oct
                             1921 with autonomy under Article VII - "A special administrative
                             regime shall be established for the district of Alexandretta. The
                             Turkish inhabitants of this district shall enjoy facility for
                             their cultural development. The Turkish language shall have
                             official recognition." (status confirmed by the Treaty of Lausanne
                             on 24 Jul 1923).
28 Jun 1922 -  1 Jan 1925  Along with State of Aleppo, part of Federation of the Syrian States
                             (with special administrative status).
 1 Jan 1925                Along with Aleppo, part of the State of Syria (still with special
                             administrative status).
Mar 1926 - Jun 1926        Separate State of Alexandretta within Syria declared under
                             Ali Efendi Odahli (not recognized by French authorities).
22 May 1930                Reglement Organique du Sandjak d'Alexandrette of 14 May 1930,
                             formalizes a special regime for the Sandjak of Alexandretta,
                             within the State of Syria.
19 Nov 1931                Part of the Republic of Syria.
1934                       Latin alphabet adopted for Turkish in the Sandjak of Alexandretta.
29 May 1936                Dispute regarding the future status of Alexandretta (Hatay) referred
                             to the League of Nations.
27 Jan 1937                France and Turkey agree to an autonomous status for the sanjak.
29 May 1937                Fundamental Law of the Sanjak of Alexandretta adopted by the Council
                             of the League of Nations and took effect 29 Nov 1937. The
                             autonomous sanjak becomes 'distinct but not separated' from French
                             Mandate of Syria. 
 5 Jul 1938                Turkish troops enter the sanjank.
 2 Sep 1938                Hatay State (Hatay Devleti), renamed by the Assembly of the Sanjak
                             of Alexandretta.
 7 Sep 1938                Hatay State is declared a republican state enjoying absolute
                             independence in its internal affairs in accordance with the
                             Constitution of 1938, passed by the Assembly of the Sanjak of
                             Alexandretta on 6 Sep 1938, separated from Syria.
29 Jun 1939                Dissolution of the Hatay State and its incorporation into Turkey
                             is approved, session of the National Assembly of the Hatay State,
                             Antakya (without sanction of the League of Nations).
11 Jul 1939                Territory of Hatay is organized as a province (vilayet) of Turkey in
                             accordance with a law passed by the Grand National Assembly of
                             Turkey on 7 Jul 1939 (signed into law 10 Jul 1939).
23 Jul 1939                Last French forces depart Antakya.

French Military Governors
 1 Nov 1918 - 1918?        Mathiot
1918? - Jan 1919           Malinjoud
Jan 1919 - c.1920          Georges Jean Joseph Capdejelle     (b. 1870 - d. 1957)

French Chief Civil Administrator
27 Nov 1918 - 12 Sep 1921  Édouard Brémond                    (b. 1868 - d. 1948)  Mil
Delegates of the High Commissioner of French-mandated Syria and Lebanon
1921 - 1923                ....
1923 - 17 Jul 1937         Pierre Marie André Durieux         (b. 1884 - d. 1947)
1937                       Mentque (acting)
 6 Sep 1937 -  3 Jun 1938  Roger Garreau                      (b. 1891 - d. 1991)
 3 Jun 1938 - 29 Jun 1939  Philibert Collet                   (b. 1896 - d. 1945)  Mil
Governors
Dec 1936 - 1938            Husni al-Barazi                    (b. 1893 - d. 1975)
1938                       Aladdin Bey
Head of State (title Devlet Reisi)
 3 Sep 1938 - 29 Jun 1939  Tayfur Sökmen (Mürsel)             (b. 1892 - d. 1980)
                             (elected by assembly of the sanjak on 2 Sep 1938)

Prime Minister
 4 Sep 1938 - 29 Jun 1939  Abdurrahman Melek                  (b. 1896 - d. 1978)

15 May 1919                Smyrna (Smýrni/İzmir) district occupied by Greece.
10 Aug 1920                Treaty of Sèvres transferred 'the exercise of her rights of
                             sovereignty to a local parliament' which was to hold a
                             plebiscite in 5 years on incorporation into Greece, but left
                             area under Ottoman sovereignty, Greek occupation continuing
                             (treaty was not ratified).
30 Jul 1922                Greece declares Smyrna a protectorate.
 9 Sep 1922                Turkish forces re-occupy İzmir.
11 Sep 1922                Last Greek troops evacuate Asia Minor.

Minister High Commissioner
21 May 1919 -  9 Sep 1922  Aristeídis Stergiádis              (b. 1861 - d. 1949)

Greek Military Commanders
19 May 1919 -  2 Jun 1919  Nikólaos Zafeiríou                 (b. 1871 - d. 1947)
                             (commander of 1st Infantry Division)
 2 Dun 1919 - Dec 1919     Konstantínos Níder                 (b. 1865 - d. 1942)
                             (commander of the Greek Occupation Army)
Dec 1919 - Feb 1920        Konstantínos Miliótis-Komninós     (b. 1854 - d. 1941]
                             (commander of the Army of Asia Minor)
15 Feb 1920 - Nov 1920     Leonídas Paraskevópoulos           (b. 1860 - d. 1936)
                             (commander-in-chief of the Greek Army)
Greek Commanders of the Army of Asia Minor
12 Nov 1920 - 19 May 1922  Anastásios Papoúlas                (b. 1857 - d. 1935)
19 May 1922 – 24 Aug 1922  Geórgios Hatzianéstis              (b. 1863 - d. 1922)
24 Aug 1922 - 11 Sep 1922  Geórgios Polymémakos               (b. 1859 - d. 1942)

3 Mar 1878 - 25 Apr 1918

1 Dec 1918 - 17 Jan 1919

17 Jan 1919 - 10 Apr 1919 (Possible)

Jul 1828 - Sep 1829        Kars region occupied by Russia.
Sep 1855 - Mar 1856        Kars region occupied by Russia.
 1 Nov 1877                Kars region occupied by Russia.
 3 Mar 1878                Kars region (including Ardahan)(Karsskaya oblast) ceded to Russia by
                             the Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of San Stefano (confirmed by the
                             Treaty of Berlin of 13 Jul 1878).
28 Nov 1917 – 25 Apr 1918  Under the Transcaucasian Commissariat (see under Georgia).
 3 Mar 1918                Russia cedes the Kars oblast to the Ottoman Empire under provisions
                             of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (ratified 29 Mar 1918; annulled by
                             armistice of Moudros 30 Oct 1918).
25 Apr 1918 – 15 Jan 1919  Ottoman occupation of Kars oblast (in Ardahan from 6 Mar 1918;
                             departed 30 Jan 1919).
 4 Jun 1918                Cession to the Ottoman Empire is recognized by Armenia in the
                             Treaty of Batum.
15 Nov 1918                Kars National Council (Kars Milli Şura) established (from 1 Dec
                             1918, claimed authority over the Kars, Batum, and Nakhichevan
                             regions).
15 Jan 1919 – 28 Apr 1919  Allied (British) occupation of Kars (departed 17 May 1919), claims
                             by Armenia are not recognized.
18 Jan 1919                South-Western Caucasus Government (Cenub-i Garbi Kafkas Hükumeti)
                             established by the Great Congress, convened on 17 Jan 1919
                            (claimed authority over the Kars, Batum, and Nakhichevan regions).
10 Apr 1919                South-Western Caucasus Governmen is declared abolished by the
                             British High Commissioner to Turkey, Somerset Arthur Gough-
                             Calthorpe (b. 1865 - d. 1937).
12 Apr 1919                Dissolved by British forces.
20 Apr 1919 - 24 May 1919  Ardahan okrug occupied by Georgia.
28 Apr 1919                Kars region transferred by the Allies (British) to Armenia (Armenian
                             troops entered 24 Apr 1919), except Ardahan district (transferred
                             to Georgia) and Oltu district (nominally under British
                             administration of Batum, administered by a local government the
                             Oltu Şura Hükumeti).
24 May 1919 - Aug 1919     Ardahan occupied by British forces.
1919 - Nov 1920            Ardahan occupied by Armenia.
17 May 1920                Oltu district annexed to Turkey.
30 Oct 1920                Kars occupied by the Turkish troops (annexed 1 Nov 1920).
Nov 1920                   Ardahan occupied by Turkish troops (annexed 1 Nov 1920).
 2 Dec 1920                Kars region ceded by Armenia to Turkey by the Treaty of Alexandropol
                             (Gümrü Antlaşması)(not ratified by Armenia).
16 Mar 1921                By the Treaty of Moscow, Kars region and Ardahan recognized as
                             part of Turkey (confirmed by the Armenian S.S.R -Turkish Treaty
                             of Kars on 13 Oct 1921).
25 Dec 1925                Turkish sovereignty confirmed by Turkish-Soviet treaty.
19 Mar 1945                The Soviet Union denounces the Turkish-Soviet treaty and makes a
                             claim to the former territory.
22 Jun 1945                Turkey rejects Soviet Union claims (supported by the Western
                             Allies).
30 May 1953                Soviet Union renounces all territorial claims against Turkey.

Russian Military Governors (to Nov 1878 Administrators) of Kars oblast
 1 Nov 1877 -  8 Jun 1878  Ivan Diomidovich Popko            (b. 1819 - d. 1893)
 8 Jun 1878 -  1 Apr 1881  Viktor Antonovich Frankini        (b. 1820 - d. 1892)
 1 Apr 1881 -  5 Oct 1883  Aleksandr Ignatyevich Grosman     (b. 1836 - d. 1890)
 5 Oct 1883 - 22 Apr 1898  Pyotr Ivanovich Tomich            (b. 1838 - d. 1911)
29 May 1898 - 20 Jul 1899  Dmitriy Aleksandrovich Odintsov   (b. 1852 - d. af.1909)
26 Jan 1900 -  1 Dec 1906  Aleksey Aleksandrovich Samoylov
 1 Dec 1906 -  3 Feb 1908  Mikhail Pavlovich Babich          (b. 1844 - d. 1918)
 3 Feb 1908 - 23 Jun 1908  Sigismund Viktorovich Vol'skiy    (b. 1852 - d. 1917)
23 Jun 1908 - 12 Jul 1912  Pyotr-Emmanuil Fridrikhovich      (b. 1851 - d. af.1912)
                             fon Parkau
12 Jul 1912 - 1915         Aleksey Dmitriyevich Podgurskiy   (b. 1862 - d. 1919)
1915 - Mar 1917            Aleksandr Ilyich Sushchinskiy     (b. 1855 - d. 1933)
Commissar of the Kars Oblast of the Transcaucasian Commissariat
c.Mar 1918                 Grigor Dzamoyan                   (b. 1885 - d. 1937)  HHD
Ottoman Commander of the (to 8 Jun 1918, 2nd Caucasus Corps) 9th Army
25 Apr 1918 - Jan 1919     Yakup Şevki Pasha                 (b. 1876 - d. 1939)  Mil
Ottoman Mütesarrif (lieutenant-governor) of Kars
25 Apr 1918 - Nov 1918     Mustafa Hilmi Bey                 (b. 1886 - d. 1957)
British Military Governors in Kars
(commanders of the 4th Battalion, Rifle Brigade)
15 Jan 1919 -  2 Mar 1919  Clive Errington Temperley         (b. 1893 - d. 1956)  Mil
 2 Mar 1919 - 29 Mar 1919  Verney Asser                      (b. 1873 - d. 1944)  Mil
29 Mar 1919 - 28 Apr 1919  George Allen Preston              (b. 1868 - d. 1919)  Mil
                             (military representative to 3 Apr 1919)
Governor of the Kars Region for the Republic of Armenia
19 Apr 1919 - 30 Oct 1920  Stepan Ghorghanyan                (b. 1865 - d. 1925)  Mil
British Military Representative, Ardahan
(subordinated to British military governor, Batum)
24 May 1919 - Aug 1919     S. Oliver                                              Mil

Heads of Kars National Council
15 Nov 1918 -  1 Dec 1918  Emin Ağa Borçali                  (b. 1868 - d. 1937)
                           + Fahrettin Bey Piroğlu           (b. 1874 - d. 1958)
Head of the Kars National Council Government
 1 Dec 1918 - 18 Jan 1919  Cihangirzade İbrahim Bey          (b. 1874 - d. 1948)
Head of the South-Western Caucasus Government (title Hükumet Reisi)
18 Jan 1919 - 12 Apr 1919  Cihangirzade İbrahim Bey          (s.a.)
Chairman of Provisional Administrative Council for Kars Region
15 Apr 1919 - 30 Apr 1919  Esat Bey Çildirli                 (b. 1887 - d. 1971)
Chairman of Oltu Assembly Administration
 2 May 1919 - 25 May 1919  Mehmet Ramiz Bey 
Head of Oltu Council Government
25 May 1919 - 17 May 1920  Yusuf Ziya Bey                    (b. 1886 - d. 1928)  OITF

Party abbreviations: HHD = Hay Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutyun (Armenian Revolutionary Federation, "Dashnak", democratic socialist, Armenian nationalist, anti-communist, 1890-1920); OITF = Oltu İslam Terakki Fırkası (Oltu Islamic Progress Party, nationalist, 1919-1920); Mil - Military

10 Nov 1918                Allied occupation of the Bosporus, the Dardanelles, the eastern
                             coast of the Sea of Marmara, islands of İmbros, Lemnos, 
                             Samothrace, Tenedos, and 15 km deep into eastern and
                             western shores; entire area demilitarized (Zone of the Straits).
13 Nov 1918                Allies occupy Constantinople (Kostantiniyye)(de jure from 16 Mar
                             1920). Occupation zones - British in Pera, Galata and Şişli; the
                             French in the Old City and Western suburbs; and the Italians in
                             Üsküdar on the Anatolian side.
24 Jul 1923                International Straits Commission created by the Straits Convention
                             as part of Treaty of Lausanne to supervise the Zone of the Straits
                             which demilitarized the Dardanelles and opened the Straits to
                             unrestricted civilian and military traffic (effective 6 Aug 1924).
 2 Oct 1923                Termination of Allied occupation (troops depart 23 Sep 1923).
 6 Oct 1923                Turkish troops reenter Istanbul.
10 Jul 1936                New Straits Convention signed at Montreux, Switzerland ("Montreux
                             Convention")(ratified 9 Nov 1936), replacing the 1923 Convention.
21 Jul 1936                Turkey re-occupies the formerly demilitarized zone.             
30 Sep 1936                International Commission of the Straits ceases to function.

Senior Allied (British) High Commissioners and Presidents of
the Inter-Allied Commission of Control and Organization
31 Oct 1918 - Jul 1919     Sir Somerset Arthur Gough-         (b. 1864 - d. 1937)
                             Calthorpe
Jul 1919 - Nov 1920        Sir John Michael de Robeck         (b. 1862 - d. 1928)
Nov 1920 - 1924            Sir Horace George Montagu          (b. 1869 - d. 1941)
                             Rumbold 
Nov 1922 - 1923            Sir Nevile Meyrick Henderson       (b. 1882 - d. 1942)
                             (acting for Rumbold)
Presidents of the International Straits Commission (all from Turkey)
1924 - 1934                Vasıf Temel Paşa                   (b. 1871 - d. 1958)
1934 - Jun 1936            Mehmet Ali Dalay

French High Commissioners
Nov 1918 - Jan 1919        Jean-François Charles Amet         (b. 1861 - d. 1940)
 8 Jan 1919 - 30 Mar 1919  Louis Félix Marie François         (b. 1856 - d. 1942)
                             Franchet d'Espèrey (acting)
30 Mar 1919 - Dec 1920     Jules Albert Defrance              (b. 1860 - d. 1936)
11 Jan 1921 - 1924         Maurice César Joseph Pellé         (b. 1863 - d. 1924)
Greek High Commissioners
Nov/Dec1919 - Jan/Feb1921  Efthýmios Kanellópoulos            (b. 1872 - d. 1933)
Jan/Feb 1921-Jan/Feb 1922  Nikólaos Vótsis                    (b. 1877 - d. 1931)
11 Feb 1922 - 29 Jul 1922  Nikólaos Triantafyllákos           (b. 1855 - d. 1939)
29 Jul 1922 – 1924         Charálampos Simópoulos             (b. 1874 - d. 1942)
Italian High Commissioners
Nov 1918 - Jun 1919        Carlo Sforza, conte Sforza         (b. 1872 - d. 1952)
1919 - 1920                Romano Lodi Fé (acting)            (b. 1881 - d. 1971)
Sep 1920 - 1923            Antonio Giovanni Luigi Camillo     (b. 1852 - d. 1935)
                             Adolfo Edoardo Eugenio Adele
                             Garroni, marchese Garroni
Japanese High Commissioners
18 Apr 1921 - 15 Jun 1923  Uchida Sadatsuchi                  (b. 1865 - d. 1942)
15 Jun 1923 - 1925         Kasama Akio (acting)               (b. 1885 - d. 1945)
United States High Commissioners
30 Nov 1918 –  3 May 1919  Lewis J. Heck (acting to Jan 1919) (b. 1889 - d. 1964)
 3 May 1919 - 12 Aug 1919  Gabriel Bie Ravndal (acting)       (b. 1865 - d. 1950)
12 Aug 1919 - 1927         Mark Lambert Bristol               (b. 1868 - d. 1939)

General Commanders-in-Chief of the Allied Armies of the Orient (in Constantinople)
12 Nov 1918 -  5 Apr 1920  Louis Félix Marie François         (s.a.)
                             Franchet d'Espèrey (France)
 5 Apr 1920 -  2 Oct 1923  Pierre Émile Nayral Martin de      (b. 1862 - d. 1949)
                             Bourgon (France)

General Officers Commanding-in-Chief, Army of the Black Sea (in Constantinople)
Dec 1918 - Oct 1920        George Francis Milne (U.K.)        (b. 1866 - d. 1948)
Oct 1920 - 23 Sep 1923     Sir Charles Harington (U.K.)       (b. 1872 - d. 1940)

Mayors of Kostantiniyye (Constantinople)
28 Aug 1918 - 15 Dec 1918  Cemil Pasha Topuzlu (1st time)     (b. 1866 - d. 1958) 
18 Dec 1918 -  4 May 1919  Yusuf Ziya Bey
 5 May 1919 - 28 Feb 1920  Cemil Pasha Topuzlu (2nd time)     (s.a.)
 2 Mar 1920 - 17 Apr 1920  Hayreddin Bey 
18 Apr 1920 -  2 Dec 1920  Salim Pasha
 5 Dec 1920 - 23 Feb 1921  Yusuf Razi Bey 
24 Feb 1921 -  5 Jul 1921  Mehmed Ali Bey
 7 Jul 1921 -  4 Mar 1922  Mehmet Celâl Bey                   (b. 1863 - d. 1926)
 5 Mar 1922 - 13 Apr 1923  Ziya Bey

Map of Kurdish Areas

Capital: Ararat: Kurdava (1927-1931) Soran: Rawanduz (1816-1836)

Population: N/A

1514                       Kurds voluntarily accept Ottoman rule and as a result
                             the Sultan formally recognized the existing Kurdish 
                             principalities (Baban, Botan, Badinan, Soran, etc.) as 
                             independent states under Osmanli supervision.
1870                       Last of the Kurdish principalities abolished. 
10 Aug 1920                Treaty of Sèvres contains provisions for a Kurdish state
                             under U.S. mandate, this is never implemented.
24 Apr 1920                Mosul declared a part of Iraq.
 6 Mar 1921 - 17 Jun 1921  Kurdish rebellion in Koçgiri present-day eastern Sivas Province.
Aug 1924 - 10 Oct 1925     Halid Beg Cibran (b. 1882 - d. 1925) of the Cibran tribe leads a
                             Kurdish revolt in Beytüşşebap.
 8 Feb 1925 - Mar 1925     Sheikh Said (b. 1865 - d. 1925) rebellion mostly led by Zaza
                             speakers, but also gained support among some of the neighboring
                             Kurmanji-speaking Kurds in the region.
28 Oct 1927 - 17 Sep 1930  Republic of Ararat (Komara Araratê or Komara Agiriyê) proclaimed in
                             northeastern part of Turkey with a capital at Kurdava (Doğubayazıt)
                             (primarily a rebellion of Kurmanji Kurds in Ağrı Province).
20 Mar 1937 - Dec 1938     Kurdish rebellion in the Dersim region of eastern Turkey.
12 Apr 1995 - 26 Sep 1999  Kurdistan Parliament in Exile (Parlamenta Kurdistanê Li Derveyî
                             Welat)(PKDW) founded in Brussels, Belgium.
24 May 1999                Kurdistan National Congress (Kongreya Neteweyî ya Kurdistanê)
                             founded in exile as the successor to the PKDW.

Emirs of Soran

.... - ....                Kelos
.... - ....                Isa
.... - ....                Shah Ali Bey
.... - ....                Pir Budak bin Shah Ali Bey
.... - ....                Mir Saifeddin
.... - ....                Mir Hussain
.... - ....                Mir Saidi bin Shah Ali Bey
.... - ....                Saifeddin bin Mir Hussain bin 

                             Pir Budak
.... - ....                Kuli Bey bin Sulaiman Bey Mir

                             Saidi
.... - ....                Budak Bey bin Kuli Bey bin

                             Sulaiman Bey
.... - ....                Sulaiman Bey bin Kuli Bey 

                             bin Sulaiman Bey
.... - ....                Ali Bey bin Sulaiman Bey
.... - ....                Shkali Bey
17.. - 1816                Sulaiman Bey
1816 - 1825                Khanzad
1825 - 1836                Mohammed Pasha "Mir Kor"         (b. 1783 - d. 1838)

President of the Republic of Ararat (governor of Agirî Province)

28 Oct 1927 - 17 Sep 1930  İbrahim Heski                    (d. 1931)            Khoyboun

                            (İbrahim Paşa Haski Tello)   

Military leader of the Republic of Ararat (General commander of Kurdish Armed Forces)

28 Oct 1927 - 17 Sep 1930  İhsan Nuri Paşa                  (b. 1893 - d. 1976)  Mil/Khoyboun

Presidents of the Kurdistan Parliament in Exile

26 Mar 1995 - 12 Apr 1995  İsmet Chériff Vanly (acting)     (b. 1924 - d. 2011)  PDK

12 Apr 1995 - 26 Sep 1999  Yaşar Kaya                       (b. 1938 - d. 2016)  HEP

                             (in The Hague, Netherlands;

                             later in Brussels, Belgium exile)

President of the Kurdistan National Congress

24 May 1999 - 20..         Jawad Mella (in London, UK exile)(b. 1946)

Co-chairs of the Kurdistan National Congress (in exile)

27 Sep 2015 - Oct 2019     Rebwar Rashed        

                           + Nilüfer Koç (f)

Oct 2019 -                 Zainab Morad Sohrab (f)

                           + Ahmet Karamûs

Party abbreviations: HEP = Halkın Emek Partisi (People's Labour Party, social-democratic, Kurdish nationalist, est.7 Jun 1990, banned by Turkey 14 Jul 1993); Khoyboun = Xoybûn - Ciwata Serxwebuna Kurd (Being Ones-self, pan-Kurdish, nationalist, secular, 5 Oct 1927-1946); PDK = Partiya Demokrat a Kurdistanê/Partiya Demokrata Kurdistan (Kurdistan Democratic Party [KDP], Kurdish nationalist, center-right, secular, est.16 Aug 1946)

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Russian Occupied Western Armenia

18 May 1915 – 13 Aug 1915  Russians briefly occupy Van.
May 1915 - Jul 1915        Aram Manukyan's Armenian administration in Van.
Jan 1916 - May 1916        Russians occupy the provinces of Turkish (Western) Armenia -
                             Erzurum, Khunus, Trebizond, and Van (taking cities of Erzerum
                             16 Feb 1916, Bitlis 3 Mar 1916 - 5 Aug 1916, Trebizond 18 Apr 1916,
                             Erzingan 26 Jul 1916, Mush 18 Feb 1916, and Van 1916).
 4 Jun 1916                Administration of Occupied Turkish Provinces (from 9 May 1917,
                             of Turkish Armenia and Other Occupied Turkish Provinces)
                             established by Russia in Tiflis (from Dec 1917, under the
                             Transcaucasian Commissariat which acts on behalf of Russian
                             Republic).
18 Dec 1917                Armistice of Erzincan which leads to withdrawal by Jan 1918 of
                             ethnic Russian component of the Russian Caucasus Army.
12 Feb 1918 –  7 Apr 1918  Turkish forces re-occupy the area (Trebizond 24 Feb 1918,
                             Erzerum 12 Mar 1918, and Van 7 Apr 1918).
 3 Mar 1918                Soviet Russia agrees to evacuate the Russian Caucasus Army by
                             the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (not recognized by Transcaucasian
                             Commissariat).

Russian Commander (of the Caucasus Army)
May 1915 – Jul 1916        Nikolay Nikolayevich Yudenich    (b. 1862 - d. 1933)
Governors-general
18 Jul 1916 – 1916         Nikolay Nikolayevich Peshkov     (b. 1857 - d. af.1917)
1916 – 30 Jan 1917         Mikhail Nikolayevich Dryagin     (b. 1852 - d. af.1917)
30 Jan 1917 – May 1917     Boris Stepanovich Romanovskiy-   (b. 1870 - d. 1941)
                             Roman'ko
Commissar-general
28 May 1917 – Apr 1918     Pyotr Ivanovich Averyanov        (b. 1867 - d. 1937)

Assistants for Civil Affairs
28 May 1917 – Apr 1918     Yakov Khristoforovich Zavriyev   (b. 1864 - d. 1920)  HHD
                             (Akop Zavriyan) (= Hakob Zavriev)
                           + Fyodor Igorevich Ivanitskiy    (b. 1861 - d. 1929)  KDP
                              (21 Aug 1917 – Dec? 1917)

Provisional Governor of Van
May 1915 - Jul 1915        Aram Manukyan                    (b. 1879 - d. 1919)  HHD
Governors
Jun 1916 – Dec 1917        Aram Manukian (interim)          (s.a.)               HHD
Dec 1917 – Mar 1918        Tovmas Nazarbekian               (b. 1855 - d. 1931)
                             (= Foma Nazarbekov)
Mar 1918 – Apr 1918        Andranik Ozanian                 (b. 1865 - d. 1927)  HDD
Civil affairs
May 1917 – Dec 1917        Yakov Khristoforovich Zavriyev   (s.a.)               HHD
                             (= Hakob Zavriev)
Civil Commissioner
Dec 1917 –  7 Apr 1918     Drastamat "Dro" Kanayan          (b. 1884 - d. 1956)

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Genoese Pera and Galatea

1273                       Republic of Genoa granted Pera & Galatea suburbs of Constantinople.
29 May 1453                Constantinople captured by the Ottomans.

Podestas (mayors)
1273                       Oberto Sardena
1276                       Ingueto Spinola
1279                       Niccolò Doria
1285                       Guideto de Nigro (acting)
1300                       Bernabo Spinola
1300 - 1302                Govino Tartaro
1304                       Rosso Doria
1315 - 1316                Montano de Marinis
1335                       Andalo de Maris
1338                       Costantino Doria
1348                       Benedetto d'Arco
1356                       Lanzarotto de Castro
1357                       Bartolomeo Rubeo
13..                       Jacopo Grillo (acting)
1367                       Tommaso di Iglione
1376                       Bartolomeo Pindeberi
1379                       Luciano de Nigro
1382                       Lorenzo Gentile
1386                       Eliano de Camilla
1386 - 1387                Raffaele Doria
1387                       Giovanni de Mezzano
1390                       Antonio Leardo
1391 - 1392                Niccolò Zoagu
1392                       Dorino Usodimare
1396 - 1397                Luchino de Bonavey
1397                       Gentile Grimaldi
1402                       Lodovico Bavoso
1402                       Bartolomeo Rubeo
1403                       Giannoto Lomellino (1st time)
                             (acting)
1404                       Giovanni Sauli (1st time)
1404                       Giovanni Botto
1405                       Napoleone Salvago
1405                       Giannoto Lomellino (2nd time)
1405                       Giovanni Sauli (2nd time)
1410                       Tommaso de Campofregoso
1411                       Quilico de Taddei
1413                       Corrado Cigala
1418                       Thedisio Doria
1423                       Zacaria Spinola
1425 - 1426                Imperiale Lomellino
1426                       Taddeo de Zoagli
1427                       Giannotto Spinola
1430 - 1431                Filippo de Franchi
1432 - 1433                Ilairo Imperiale
1434                       Agostino Montalolo
1435                       Ansaldo Doria
1435                       Stefano de Marinis
1438                       Giovanni di Levanto
1439                       Simone Macie
1440 - 1442                Niccolò Antonio Spinola
1443 - 1444                Baruel de Grimaldi
1445 - 1446                Baldassarre Maruffo
1446 - 1447                Luchino de Facio
1447                       Pietro di Marco (acting)
1448 - 1449                Benedetto di Vivaldi
1449                       Francisco Cavallo
1451 - 1452                Angelo Giovanni Lomelino 
                             (acting to 1452)
1452 - 29 May 1453         Francesco Giustiniani

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© Ben Cahoon